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HANDBOOK OF 
RURAL SOCIAL RESOURCES 


THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS 
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 


—_—_—— 


THE BAKER & TAYLOR COMPANY 
NEW YORK 


THE MACMILLAN COMPANY OF CANADA, LIMITED 
TORONTO 


THE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 
LONDON 


THE MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA 
TOKYO, OSAKA, KYOTO, FUKUOKA, SENDAI 


THE COMMERCIAL PRESS, LIMITED 
SHANGHAI 


‘HANDBOOK OF 
RURAL SOCIAL RESOURCES. 





EDITED BY 


di 
HENRYOUSRAEL 
AND 


urd 
BEN SOON WY es LAN DAES 


UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS 
Cuicaco, ILLINors 


CoPyRIGHT 1926 By 
Tue UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO 





All Rights Reserved 





Published June, 1926 


Printed in the United States of America by 
J. J. LITTLE AND IVES COMPANY, NEW YORK 


CONTENTS 


PARTI 


UN TRODUCTION (iar i EO COT ak Oey ee be 1X 


CHAPTER 


LGN yp RURATES POPULATION ULE Ounce idiot I 
C. E. Lively. . 


Increase and Decrease of Rural Population—Sex 
Proportions—Age Distribution—Race and Na- 
tionality—Occupation. 


II Farmers’ STANDARDS OF LIVING.......... 13 
E. L. Kirkpatrick. 


Composition of Households and Families Studied 
—Classifications of Goods Used—Value of Family 
Living Furnished by the Farm—Family Living 
Purchased—Total Value of Family Living—How 
the Total Value of Family Living is Distributed 
—Comparisons of the Distribution of Goods Used 
by Farm Families and Industrial Families— 
Variations in the Distribution of Values of the 
Principal Groups of Goods with Increase in the 
Total Value of All Goods—The Distribution of 
the Value of Goods Used as an Index of Standard 
of Living. ~ 


III THe DEVELOPMENT OF RURAL ART........ 26 
Anna Mansfield Clark. 


Drama—Religious Drama—Art Extension in Illi- 
nois—The Landscape Background—Music. 


DVSMUSURATI EDUCATION: 4 vis ths static y ate fake al tice eis 37 


Ernest Burnham. 


The Public Schools—Higher Institutions—Goy- 
ernment Agencies— Voluntary Organizations — 
Research and Publicity. 


Vv 


v1 


CHAPTER 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


IX 


CONTENTS 


RURAT SOCKAUAWOR RA ee Pee ee 


Leroy A. Ramsdell. 


What Is Social Work?—The Availability of 
Social Work to Rural Communities—Emerging 
Problems. 


THE RuraL WorK OF THE CATHOLIC 
CHURCH HN Wh UM as DaMts ie vat atet net ats 

E. V. O'Hara. 
Early Developments—Rural Catholic Education 


—Policies—The Program of the National Catholic 
Welfare Conference. 


‘THE SITUATION AMONG PROTESTANT RURAL 
CHURCH BS) ui ete tae prs be saret eas ae erg 


Ralph 8. Adams. 


Statistics of Rural Churches—The Work of 
Church Organizations. 


ORGANIZED RURAL RECREATION........... 
Lee F. Hanmer. 
The Formation of Recreational Organizations— 


The Training of Play Leaders—The Baseball 
Situation—Typical Projects. 


FARM WOMEN’S ORGANIZATIONS.......... 
Grace E. Frysinger. 
Early Organizations of Farm Women—Present 
Day Conditions and Organizations—Trends in 
Administration—Changes in Form of Organiza- 
tion—Trends in Function. 


NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL LEGISLATION, 
192) ie A GI ee Ue oan Ursa Abe ete 


Robert Samuel Fletcher. 


Tariff Acts of 1921 and 1922—Agricultural 
Credit—The Capper-Volstead Act, 1922—The 
Packers and Stockyards Act, 192i1—The Grain 
Futures Act, 1922—The Cotton Standards Act, 
1923—-The Butter Standard Act, 1923—The Filled 
Milk Bill, 1923—Establishment of the Bureau of 


60 


66 


75 


85 


94 


CoNTENTS vil 


PAGE 
Dairying, 1924—The Federal Highways Act, 
1921—Freight Rate Investigations, 1925—The 
Purnell Act, 1925. 


CHAPTER 


XI THE CoOpERATIVE MARKETING MOVEMENT 107 


Benson Y. Landis. 

The Extent of Codperative Marketing—Types of 
Codperative Organizations—Accomplishments and 
Limitations—The Social Aspects of Codéperative 
Marketing. 


XII Farm Crepit AND FARM TJAXATION....... 119 


Norman J. Wall. 
The Demand for More Capital and the Agencies 
Supplying it—Taxation Problems. 


XIII AcGricuLtturRAL PropucTION, PRICES AND 
TH COME AOL roe sieht ndeate Wal ole tie 126 


DWH? Bean. 

Agricultural Production Since 1919—The Price 
Readjustment—The Purchasing Power of the 
Farmer’s Dollar and of His Products—Income 
from Agricultural Production—The Rates of Re- 
turn on All Capital and Management Employed 
in Agriculture—Reward for Operators’ Capital 
and Management—Reward for the Farmer’s 
Effort. 


XIV Some AGRICULTURAL PoLicizs oF Euro- 
PEANPAUIN ATION S yet anh he lie te ledel ster otal tia ti ay 143 
Asher Hobson. 
The Battle of Wheat in Italy—The English 
Situation—The Russian Program—Land Reform 
in the Balkans—American Interest. 


PART II 


I THe ProcrAms oF NATIONAL AGENCIES EN- 
GAGED IN RuRAL SociAL WorkK....... 153 

American Country Life Association and the Na- 

tional Council of Agencies Engaged in Rural 


Viil 


INDEX 


CoNTENTS 


Social Work—Activities of the Association—The 
National Council of Social Agencies—Officials of 
the National Council—American Child Health 
Association—American Farm Bureau Federation 
—American Home Economics Association—Ameri- 
can Library Association—American National 
Red Cross—Board of Home Missions and Church 
Extension of the Methodist Episcopal Church; 
Department of Rural Work—Board of National 
Missions, Presbyterian Church of the U. S. A,, 
Town and Country Department—Federal Council 
of the Churches of Christ in America—Girl 
Scouts—Home Missions Council—National Board 
of the Young Women’s Christian Association; Ru- 
ral Communities Department—National Child 
Labor Committee—National Catholic Welfare 
Conference—National Congress of Mothers and 
Parent-Teacher Association; Country Life De- 
partment—National Council of the Young Men’s 
Christian Association; County Work Department 
—National Education Association; Rural Educa- 
tion Department—National Grange—National Or- 
ganization for Public Health Nursing—Playground 
and Recreation Association of America—Russell 
Sage Foundation; Recreation Department—U. S. 
Bureau of Education; Rural Education Division 
—U. S. Department of Agriculture; Division of 
Farm Population and Rural Life—U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture; Extension Service—U. S. 
Department of Labor; Children’s Bureau—uw. S. 
Public Health Service. 


e 


PAGE 


197 


INTRODUCTION 


This handbook is designed as a reference work for a variety 
of rural workers. It comprises data about many rural interests 
and is published as a source of concise information for teachers 
of rural social science, teachers and administrators of public 
schools, extension workers, social workers, ministers, church 
administrators, etc. 

Part I consists of interpretations of developments in rural 
life within roughly the past five years by specialists who have 
made a special study of the particular interest which they discuss. 
Responsibility for interpretation is in each case that of the person 
presenting the material. 

Part II comprises statements of the programs and present 
services of the national agencies who are members of the Na- 
tional Council of Agencies Engaged In Rural Social Work. It 
is a revision of a compilation of information published about 
these agencies in 1920, and which is now out of print. 

The purpose of the work is to bring together data that has 
hitherto been widely scattered, to sum up the recent achieve- 
ments and developments in rural life. It is proposed to revise 
it in from three to five years, if the reception to this volume 
indicates that it is serviceable and is sufficiently used. 

A final word should be said to indicate that this volume is 
the product of codperation on the part of many individuals and 
agencies. A group of students of special topics generously gave 
of their time without compensation in preparing the statements 
which appear in Part II. Twenty-six agencies supplied infor- 
mation for Part II. ‘The American Country Life Association 
and the Department of Research and Education of the Federal 
Council of the Churches of Christ in America collaborated 
in planning the project and in assembling and editing the 

ix 


x INTRODUCTION 


material. The University of Chicago Press, as publishers, and 
J. J. Little & Ives Company, as printers, rendered assistance 
which helped to make the appearance of this book possible. 
On the whole, this volume is at least a modest demonstration 
of successful codperative work between a number of agencies 


and individuals. 
Henry Israkx, 


Benson Y. Lanois. 


HANDBOOK OF RURAL SOCIAL 
RESOURCES 


I 


THE RURAL POPULATION 


C. E. Livety 
Professor of Rural Sociology, Ohio State University 


In the United States the term “rural” is commonly used to 
designate that group of some fifty million people who live in 
the open country or in places of less than 2,500 population. This 
rural element which once constituted the whole population has 
been shrinking with each census until in 1920 it comprised only 
48.6 per cent of the total population. The change has been 
chiefly due to the rapid growth of cities, but it has also been 
due in part to a change in the definition of what constitutes 
rural population, since it was not until 1910 that the Census 
Bureau adopted 2,500 as the upper limit of the rural group. 
Used in this sense the term rural population does not designate 
a natural grouping but represents an arbitrary classification of 
somewhat dissimilar elements. It includes a group of incor- 
porated villages of less than 2,500 population, which remains 
in rather constant proportion to the general population, com- 
prising 8.5 per cent of the total in 1920. This group shows 
such distinctive characteristics as to make it seem advisable to 
treat villages as a separate element in the rural population.’ 

The remainder of the rural population, comprising 40.1 per 
cent of the total population, is divided between unincorporated 


fei a so concludes in his A Census Analysis of American Villages, pp. 


I 


t Hanppook oF RuRAL SociaL REsouRCES 


villages and open country. ‘The exact size of the first of these 
groups is unknown. It has been estimated in Ohio to be 5.2 per 
cent of the total population, and probably does not vary greatly 
through the several states. ‘This leaves the second, or open coun- 
try group, comprising about thirty per cent of the total popula- 
tion, by far the largest single element in the rural population. 
This open country population is often designated as farm 
population, but statistically the two terms are not synonymous. 
Farm population ? includes all persons who live on farms and 
all farm laborers living outside incorporated places. Now it 
is by no means true that all persons who live on farms are 
engaged in farming. Neither is it true that all the people who 
live in the open country are on farms. Further, it is probable 
that the number of those not living on farms is increasing 
and that it will continue to grow with suburban development. 
Then again, we have a certain percentage of the farm popula- 
tion living on farms within the limits of incorporated cities and 
villages. So it is that in 1920 the farm population comprised 
29.9 per cent of the total population and, excluding the quarter 
of a million of these who lived within urban limits, there 
must have been a group of five per cent or more of the rural 
population living in the open country but not on farms. 


INCREASE AND DECREASE OF RURAL POPULATION 


There has been no trend more characteristic of recent times 
than the rapid and widespread growth of cities. ‘The claim 
that a heavy draft has been put upon the rural population for 
this growth has been the subject of much investigation and 
discussion. Gillette * has showed the comparative rates of in- 
crease of urban and rural populations by decades since 1800. 
For these thirteen decades the average rate of urban increase has 
been 59 per cent while the average rate of rural increase has 
been 24.5 per cent or only 41.5 per cent as rapid as urban 
growth. The rate of rural increase has progressively declined 


2The Fourteenth Census, 1920, made a separate report on farm popula- 
tion for the first time. See Vol. V, ch. XIV. 
8J. M. Gillette, Rural Sociology, New York, Macmillan Co., 1923, p. 83. 


THE RuraL PoPpuLATION 3 


from 35 per cent during the decade 1800-1810 to 5.4 per cent 
during the decade 1910-20. 

As may be supposed, the relative decline of rural population 
has not been uniform throughout the country but is marked 
by differential rates of increase and decrease. ‘Thus, while 
forty-four states lost rural population as relative to the urban 
population between 1910-1920, only fifteen states lost rural 
population in the absolute sense. ‘That is, the percentage which 
the rural population is of the total population of the state de- 
clined in forty-four states. But in only fifteen states were 
there actually fewer persons living in the rural districts in 1920 
than in 1910. ‘The states of this latter group, which numbered 
only seven for the period 1900-1910, and of which New York, 
Ohio, Illinois and Iowa are typical, are for the most part located 
in the northeastern and north central sections, where urban 
industry and advanced agricultural methods have been most 
highly developed. ‘The percentage loss in rural population in 
these states ranged from a minimum 0.9 per cent in Ohio to a 
maximum of 15.3 per cent in Nevada. During the same period, 
1910-20, the urban population of these states grew at a mini- 
mum rate of 10.7 per cent in Vermont and at a maximum rate 
of 66.2 per cent in Michigan. 

Viewing these rural population losses from the standpoint of 
smaller local areas, we find that everywhere some counties or 
townships are increasing and others are decreasing in population, 
though the increases may come at such a slow rate as to show 
a relative loss when compared with the urban population of the 
same areas. Gillette states that “during the last census decade, 
about 70 per cent of the 3,000 counties, and probably 50 per 
cent or more of the scores of thousands of townships had fewer 
rural inhabitants in 1920 than in 1910.” * In Ohio during the 
same period, out of a total of 1,317 rural townships, 315 town- 
ships (23.9 per cent) showed an increase in open country popu- 
lation; 998 townships (75.8 per cent) showed a decrease and 
4 townships (0.3 per cent) remained stationary.° 

kg of the American Sociological sheet Vol. XIX, p. 136. 


a Oe “Increases and Decreases in the Open Country Population 
of Ohio, 1910- is20, ” Journal of Farm Economics, 1, VI, pp. 248-53. 


4 HanpBook oF RuRAL SociAL REsouRCES 


Considering the same question of differential increase and 
decrease, not from the standpoint of geography but from the 
standpoint of type of place, we find that here also the general 
rate hides wide variations. ‘Thus while the rural United States 
grew 5.4 per cent during the decade 1910-1920, the incor- 
porated villages therein included increased 9.7 per cent and the 
remainder of the rural population increased only 1.9 per cent. 
We have no measure of the comparative rates of increase of the 
populations of the unincorporated villages and open country for 
the nation as a whole. Computations have been made for Ohio, 
and here we find that for the same period the rural population 
decreased 0.9 per cent, the incorporated villages increased 4.6 
per cent, the unincorporated villages increased 11.6 per cent and 
the open country decreased 5.2 per cent.° It appears to be true 
that the villages as a class; with the exception of those in New 
England,’ are losing population only relatively; and although 
large numbers of villages are declining, the regions of greatest 
absolute loss are to be found in the open country. 

Any adequate explanation of the decline of rural population 
involves consideration of two general propositions or problems: 
(1) the differential rates of natural increase of rural and urban 
populations, and (2) migration to and from the rural and urban 
sections. Let us consider them in order. ; 

It is difficult to secure accurate comparisons of the natural in- 
crease of urban and rural populations because of the present state 
of the vital statistics, particularly those of the rural population. 
The natural increase of a population is measured by the surplus 
of births over deaths. To be sure, we possess crude rates of 
births and deaths among the rural population for the registration 
areas, but so long as we are unable to secure from our census 
significant age and sex analyses comparable to those available for 
cities, and so long as our vital statistics include all communities 
under 10,000 as “rural,” much of the effort at comparative anal- 
yses of urban and rural vital statistics will be rendered useless. 


* Ibid. 
™Cf. J. M. Gillette, Rural Sociology, New York: Macmillan Co., 1923, 
pp. 465, 467. 


THE RuraL PorpuLaTion 5 


For such comparative studies adjusted and specific rates only are 
significant, 

Investigators are fairly well agreed, however, upon certain 
conclusions about birth and death rates: (1) That the birth rate 
is everywhere on the decline, and that it began to fall first in 
the cities, but is now falling almost as rapidly among the rural 
population, though the rural rate still remains considerably higher 
than the urban rate. (2) That the death rate has also generally 
declined, and that the urban rate has declined more rapidly than 
the rural rate, but that the rural rate still remains decidedly the 
lower. (3) That as a result of this comparative condition of the 
birth and death rates the rural sections have a greater surplus of 
births over deaths each year, z.¢, a greater natural increase than 
the urban sections.® 

The relatively large proportion of children in the rural popu- 
lation is a matter of common knowledge. In centers of 2,500 
population and over, in 1920, 19 per cent of the population was 
under ten years of age. In the farm population 25.7 per cent 
was under ten years of age. ‘This means that in a typical city 
of 10,000 people there would be 670 fewer children under ten 
years of age than in a similar sized group of farm population.® 
Thompson *° finds that in 1920 there were 391 children under 
five for every 1,000 women aged fifteen to forty-four in the 
urban population, and 580 in the rural population, thus indicat- 
ing a 48.3 per cent excess of children under five among rural 
women of child-bearing age as compared with urban women of 
the same age. These differences are subject, of course, to great 
variation for different localities. For Maine the corresponding 
figures are 378 and 505; for West Virginia, 400 and 716. 

A number of reasons have been assigned for this higher rate 
of child production in rural districts. ‘The more significant 
of these appear to be that (1) farming is a domestic occupation 
and is much dominated by home ideals and attitudes, which in- 

* cf, E. B. Reuter, Population Problems, pp. 152-3 247-8; J. M. Gillette, 
Rural Sociology, pp. 84-88; W. S. Thompson, “Rural Demography,” Pubh- 
cations of the American Sociological Society, Vol. XIX, pp. 152-5. 

. Galpin, ‘Can the Farm Family Afford Modern Institutions?” 
Peaiedine of the American Country Life Association, 1923, p. 49. 


20 Op. cit., p. 157. 
an Gillette, p. ctt., p. 86; Thompson, Op. cit., p. 159. 


6 Hanppook oF RuRAL SoctaL REsOURCES 


variably include children. (2) In the country there is compara- 
tively little social competition in consuming goods which tends to 
reduce the number of children per family. (3)A larger propor- 
tion of rural people marry, and they marry younger than is the 
case in cities. (4) It costs less to rear children in the country, 
partly because a child’s labor on the farm makes him an eco- 
nomic asset after an age of eight or ten is attained. It may be 
remarked that all of these conditions are subject to change and 
that with the possible exception of the first the progressive urbani- 
zation of the country is reducing the effectiveness of these and 
other factors to maintain the high birth rate of an earlier day. 
From the time cities were established their death rates appear 
to have been higher than the death rates for the rural sections. 
Early cities could maintain their numbers only through migration 
from the outlying areas, but the development of sanitary science 
has enabled modern cities rapidly to lower their death rates and 
greatly to reduce the hazard due to unsafe water, milk and gen- 
eral lack of sanitation. In the meantime the rural death rate 
has also declined, but much less rapidly than the urban rate 
which is now in some areas lower than the rural rate, if only 
crude rates be considered. However, urban populations are 
weighted in the vigorous age groups of 15 to 45 while rural 
populations have an undue proportion of persons in the age 
groups above 60, two facts which make the death rates appear 
more nearly equal than they really are. It is true that the coun- 
try has been less affected by sanitary science, that first class 
medical and hospital facilities are not within easy reach of coun- 
try people, that the common physical defects are as numerous 
there as anywhere else and less frequently cared for, that poverty, 
ignorance and filth play their accustomed roles.1? But in spite 
of these facts country people continue to live longer than city 
people. Indeed, recent data** point to the conclusion that, 
ranked on the basis of the survival rate of the population, rural 
states come first, semi-industrialized states second, highly urban- 
ized states third and cities last. Apparently there can be but 


2Cf. Geo. E. Vincent, Annual Report of the Rockefeller Foundation, 
1924, pp. 33-4. 
18 Thompson, Op. cit., p. 153. 


Tue Rurat PoPpuLATION 7 


little doubt that there are survival values inherent in country 
life which are not dependent upon organized public health work. 
There can also be but little doubt, when urban experience is con- 
sidered, that equal application of public health measures would 
still further reduce mortality rates in the rural districts. 

It is clear from this comparison of the rural and urban birth 
and death rates that natural population increase in the rural 
districts is much greater than in the urban districts. For the 
period 1910-20 it has been calculated to be 7.6 persons per thou- 
sand for the urban and 15.2 persons per thousand for the rural, 
or approximately twice as great for the rural districts as for the 
urban districts. Clearly, if the country retained all of its 
natural increase it would not only soon outdistance the city in 
size and rate of growth, but the country would soon become seri- 
ously overcrowded from the standpoint of the demands of agri- 
cultural industry. The greater portion of this natural increase 
does not remain in the country, however. From 1910 to 1920 
the rural districts increased by only 1,599,871 persons while 
their natural increase plus three-quarters of a million immigra- 
tion is estimated to have been 7,850,000 persons. ‘Thus we have 
a quantitative estimate of the cityward migration during the 
decade. It amounted to about 6,150,000 persons and consti- 
tuted 45.2 per cent of the total urban increase for the period.*® 
The comparative rates of increase and decrease for villages and 
open country indicate that the larger part of this migration came 
from the farms. 

Much discussion has centered about the causes of this huge 
population movement away from the country districts. While 
there is an endless variety of such causes, expressed by the migrant 
on a particularistic and by the statistician on a generalistic level, 
it will be helpful to bear in mind that the fundamental causes 
are economic in nature. The natural increase of rural popula- 
tion, the improved standard of living in the country, made pos- 
sible through a commercialized agriculture, and the increased 


XIX a Mota ica, Publications of the American Sociological Society, Vol. 
'p. 2. 
a ita. oe 141-2, 189, 


8 Hanppook oF RuraAt SoctaL RESOURCES 


production efficiency of farm methods *® have all contributed to 
create a surplus rural population which moves elsewhere in search 
of real or fancied opportunity. (I say “fancied” opportunity 
because undoubtedly many rural people, ignorant of the dis- 
advantages of urban life, fail to recognize the advantages of 
their rural status and effect a change which they later regret 
but are unable to undo.) It is thus the younger people, and 
particularly women, seeking educational and vocational oppor- 
tunity as well as a more stimulating life, drift into the towns 
and cities and fail to return, leaving a dearth of young people 
generally, and of women in particular, in the country districts 
from whence they came. 

But in addition to these fundamental economic causes there 
are numerous incidental causes, mainly psychological, of popula- 
tion movement away from the country. I refer to such factors 
as insufficient social activity in the country, conveniences of liv- 
ing in the city, and the like. ‘These, combined with the very 
common opinion, frequently instilled by parents, that country 
life is a hard and inferior type of life, determine an attitude 
favorable to migration cityward as soon as the opportunity pre- 
sents itself, 

Among those who do not join this great migration, at least 
two classes may be distinguished: (1) those who are less socially 
minded than those who leave, or who have greater personal 
inertia, and consequently are less disturbed by the relative isola- 
tion and simplicity of country life, and (2) those who are dis- 
satisfied and desirous of leaving but to whom the opportunity 
has not yet presented itself. From the standpoint of rural or- 
ganization it should be recognized that either group is com- 
paratively dificult to work with and that each presents a some- 
what different set of problems. In areas where loss of numbers 
has been severe and rapid one may encounter numerous problems 
of social readjustment involving depleted economic resources, 
declining institutions and organizations, anemic social life, and 
mental attitudes of dissatisfaction and helplessness, 

%°Young calculates that the efficiency of farm labor has increased 82 


percent in grain production during the 50 years following 1870. See Cor- 
nell Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 426, p. 7. 


Tue Rurat PoPpuLATIoNn 9 


Much investigation of rural population movement is needed. 
Interest in the movement to cities has tended to obscure other 
movements which are numerous and significant. Inter-state and 
inter-regional movements, though declining, are still important. 
Others which should receive attention are inter-community move- 
ments and movements within the same community. ‘There is 
also need of following the rural dweller to the city to determine 
what happens to him there. We have said much about those who 
succeed, but no comprehensive study has been made of the social 
levels found by rural migrants to the cities, or of the cultural 
conflicts and maladjustments which inevitably result from a 
mingling of the urban and rural mores,*? 


SEX PROPORTIONS 


In the total population the sexes are about equal in numbers, 
there being 104 males per 100 females in 1920. Various geo- 
graphic regions and population classes differ markedly from this 
general average, however. Villages stand at one extreme with 
94.5 males per 100 females, cities approximate more nearly the 
national average with 100.4, while the farm population stands 
at the other extreme with 109.1 males per 100 females. Vil- 
lages vary from 88 males per 100 females in the Middle Atlantic 
group of states to 105.2 in the Mountain and Pacific groups,*® 
and the farm population varies from 103.6 in the South Atlantic 
to 126.6 in the Pacific group. Specific local areas vary much 
more. In the farm population of Wake County, North Caro- 
lina, there are 102.8 males and in King County, Washington, 
132.9 males per 100 females.’® 

In general the surplus of males in the rural population is 
greatest in the frontier states, and in sections where there is a 
high percentage of foreign born population, or farm laborer 
population. Combinations of these factors produce great sur- 
pluses. ‘Thus, among the farm laborer population, which is 


1 The Survey Graphic for March, 1925, represents a journalistic attempt 
ee up reise the rural negro in New York City. 
Op. cit., p. 163. 
19 C. a ek and Veda B. Larson, Farm Population of Selected Counties, 
pp. 


10 HANpBooK oF RurRAL SoctAL RESOURCES 


largely foreign born, in certain counties in Wisconsin, North 
Dakota and Washington there are two to three or more males 
to every female. The sexes are nearest equal among farm 
owners, though there is a surplus of males even in this group, and 
among the rural negro population. It is clear that in the move- 
ment away from the farm the woman is more concerned than the 
man. It appears that she leaves the tenant or laborer family 
more often than the owner family, and the reverse ratio of the 
sexes in villages suggests that she tarries there longer than the 
male, or more often drifts back to the village when urban life 
becomes impossible. 


AGE DISTRIBUTION 


Differences in the age distribution of rural and urban popu- 
lations have already been remarked. ‘The statistics of rural age 
grouping are too inadequate to permit detailed comparisons. It 
is clear, however, that there are marked age differences. In 
general the rural population shows a higher percentage of chil- 
dren and old people and a lower percentage of adults between 
the ages of 20 and 45. Cities possess almost a ten per cent ex- 
cess in this last group. 


PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF URBAN AND RuRAL POPULATION 
(1920 Census) 


AGE RURAL URBAN 
All Mawes ca ew eunie ss 100.0 100.0 
Linder sit ose Oa ee 12.3 = Bey 

Se OT baat eda ak ool waited + 123 9.3 
LOv1 Sy Ce wore: ew elais Mele s 11.6 8.6 
TSH Sy Piven eth ote ates 9.7 8.2 
204A iss cunieitalaaiis ote os wien 33.8 42.7 
ADS TANG OVERS tone de cerita re 20.2 21.3 


The age distribution by class and geographic area varies con- 
siderably. The northern and northeastern sections possess the 
smallest percentages of children and the largest percentages of 
old people while the reverse is true of the southern states. Com- 
parable figures for the farm and village groups are not avail- 
able. Such as we have show a higher percentage of persons 


SE 


THE RuraL PoPuLATION 11 


under 21 and a lower percentage of old people in the farm 
population than in the rural population at large. Individual 
counties show extremes indicating that the farm population is 
subject to age variations so great as to warrant classifying the 
distribution as abnormal. 

Available figures *° indicate that the population of villages 
presents an age distribution more nearly like that of the cities 
than of the farms. One fact sets villages off sharply from 
cities, however. ‘That fact is their large percentage of elderly 
people. Apparently villages have from six to seven per cent more 
persons 45 years of age and over than either farm or city 
populations. | 


RACE AND NATIONALITY 


The rural population is more homogeneous than the urban 
when race and nationality are considered. Only 6.5 per cent 
of the rural population is foreign-born; 79.5 per cent are native 
white. Of the total foreign-born population only 24.6 per 
cent are in rural territory. Of these by far the greater portion 
are peoples from northern and western Europe, commonly called 
the older immigrant group, and they are located chiefly in the 
north central and northwestern states. ‘There are many other 
groups, such as the Mexicans of the southwest and the Asiatics 
of the Pacific states, but in numbers they are relatively few. 

The Negro forms about 13 per cent of the rural population 
and is a decreasing element. ‘The negro birth rate is higher 
than the white, but the high death rate makes the rate of 
natural increase less than that of the white population. The 
Negro movement away from the soil appears to be relatively as 
great. ‘The Negro migration northward has been great in recent 
years, and while it is chiefly toward the cities, many of this race 
locate in the rural districts of the north, particularly in the 
villages. 

OCCUPATION 


Of the fifty-one million comprising the rural population more 
than thirty-one million (61 per cent of the rural population) are 
20 Fry, Op. cit., pp. 164-5. 


12 Hanppook oF Rurau SociaL REsoURCES 


classed as farm population. ‘This means, merely, that they live 
on farms, or are farm laborers living in unincorporated terri- 
tory. ‘There is probably an increasing number of persons living 
on farms who are not engaged in farming. This is particularly 
true in the neighborhood of industrial centers. 

We have no complete occupational analysis of the remaining 
twenty million of the rural population (39 per cent) who live 
outside incorporated places but do not live on farms. We do 
know that nearly nine million of them live in incorporated vil- 
lages, and a recent study ** shows that of these, 29.9 per cent 
are engaged in agriculture (the percentage would no doubt be 
greater had the census been taken during the summer rather than 
during the winter months), 32.9 per cent are engaged in manu- 
facture, 10.8 per cent in trade, 8.6 per cent in transportation, 
5.1 per cent in clerical work, 5.7 per cent in public and pro- 
fessional service, 3.7 per cent in domestic and personal service 
and 3.3 per cent in mineral extraction. A complete occupational 
analysis of the rural population yet remains to be made. Until 
it is done we lack one of our best means of understanding rural 
society. 


21 Fry, Op. cit., p. 164. 


II 
FARMERS’ STANDARDS OF LIVING 


E. L. KIRKPATRICK 
Associate Economic Analyst, United States Dept. of Agriculture 


The repeated use of the term “standard of living” by those 
who are proposing solutions of the problems of agriculture calls 
for a careful consideration of the economic goods which con- 
tribute to the farm family’s living. ‘The expression itself arises 
several pertinent questions. In the first place, what are the 
basic factors or elements of farm family living? Next, at what 
costs are these elements provided? Finally, what is the dis- 
tribution of the cost among the different groups of elements 
constituting a family living. 

The figures here presented as a means of throwing some light 
on these questions represent averages of the estimates obtained 
by the survey method from 2,883 farm families of selected 
localities of nine states.1| ‘The quantities, in so far as possible, 
and the prices of all goods and services consumed yearly by the 
farm family constituted the basis of all the estimates obtained. 
Where quantities of various goods could not be given, estimated 
values of or expenditures for these goods were taken instead. 

The estimates obtained by the field workers were usually given 
by the homemaker, although sometimes with help from the oper- 
ator or from an adult son or daughter. ‘Typical farm homes 
within the locality chosen for study were visited, that is, selec- 


1The Massachusetts Agricultural College, the Connecticut Agricultural 
College, the New York State College of Agriculture, the Ohio Wesleyan 
University, the Iowa State College, the Kansas State Agricultural College, 
the University of Missouri, the University of Kentucky, the Alabama Poly- 
technic Institute and the Alabama Woman’s College codperated in the field 
work for this study. The schedule used for collecting the data_was pre- 
pared jointly by the Bureau of Agricultural Economics and the Bureau of 
Home Economics, United States Department of Agriculture. 


13 


14 Hanpspook oF RurAuL SociAL REsouRCES 


tion of homes of any one size or any one level of living was 
avoided. Each home included in the study had an adult male 
acting as the farm operator and an adult female acting as the 
home-maker. The number of sons and daughters in the homes 
visited ranged from 0 to 6 or more, of different ages. 

Selected localities in Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, 
Ohio, Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Kentucky and Alabama consti- 
tute the units of study from which the results were obtained. 
Practically all field work was done between July 1, 1923, and 
September 30, 1924. Estimates in each instance were for 
goods and services used during the year just preceding the visit 
of the field worker. Since price levels changed very little be- 
tween July 1, 1923, and September 30, 1924, data from the 
separate localities studied were tabulated as being typical for the 
year ending December 31, 1923. 


COMPOSITION OF HOUSEHOLDS AND FAMILIES 


The term “household” means all the persons sheltered in one 
dwelling who eat, usually, at a common table. A family in- 
cludes parents and the sons and daughters who are at home or 
who while away at college are supported from the family purse. 
Thus, the household may include in addition to the family, 
relatives, hired help, boarders and others. Relatives and others 
are taken into account in all costs when supported from a com- 
mon income. When not supported from a common income, they 
are excluded under all except food and rental costs. Hired 
help and boarders are included under food and rental costs, 
only. 

Though smaller than size of household, size of family is ac- 
cepted as a satisfactory basis for direct comparisons of family 
living. Variations in the average size of household follow rather 
closely variations in the average size of family for the several 
localities studied. From a social and from an economic view- 
point, size of family seems to be equally preferable as a basis for 
comparison. 


a 


FARMERS STANDARDS OF LIVING 15 


CLASSIFICATION OF GOODS USED 


The values of goods and services used are tabulated by groups 
classified on the basis of their logical relation to the standard 
of living. The object of the classification used is twofold: 
(1) To enable the reader to make direct comparisons of the 
values of goods for specific purposes and, (2) to afford a more 
satisfactory index to the standard of living than is afforded by 
the total value of all goods. ‘The main groups are food, cloth- 
ing, rent, furnishings, operation, maintenance of health, advance- 
ment, personal, insurance (life and health), and unclassified. 
Food includes meats, dairy products, honey, flour, meal, vege- 
tables and fruit furnished by the farm valued at prices half way 
between what they would have brought had they been sold and 
what they would have cost had they been purchased on the local 
market. Under this head are also included groceries and other 
food products purchased. 

Clothing includes all articles of wearing apparel actually pur- 
chased for all members of the farm family during the year 
studied. Clothing values are arrived at by adding for each 
member of the family the costs as given by the homemaker of 
the separate articles of clothing which had been purchased, ex- 
cept in a few cases where estimates of total costs of clothing for 
the different persons in the family were taken. The few used 
garments received as gifts in several families are valued at what 
they were considered worth in comparison with new garments 
of similar kinds. 

Use of the farm house for the year is charged at ten per 
cent of the value of the house, in so far as this value could be 
determined by the field agent. This rental value is intended 
to cover taxes, insurance and repairs on the house and to pay 
six per cent interest on the investment. 

Furniture and furnishings include musical instruments, fur- 
niture, pictures, floor covering, bedding, linens, tableware, uten- 
sils and equipment for sewing, cleaning, laundry and canning 
purchased during the year. Depreciation on furnishings in the 
home is not taken into account. 


16 Hanpsook oF RurRAL SoctAL RESOURCES 


Operation goods include fuel—furnished by the farm or pur- 
chased—soap, cleansers, and matches purchased, hired help in 
the household, charges for laundry sent out, and telephone serv- 
ice. They also include depreciation and gasoline, oil, repairs, 
license, insurance and other accessories for the automobile where 
these are chargeable to household and family use. Depreciation 
on the automobile is charged according to the number of years 
the car had been used. The proportion of the total operation 
cost of the automobile for household use was estimated when 
the data were obtained. 

Goods used for the maintenance of health cover doctor’s, 
nurse’s and dentist’s services, hospital bills and medicine of all 
kinds purchased during the year. Advancement goods include 
board and lodging at high school or college, school and college 
text books, supplies and tuition, reading matter in the home, 
organization and club dues, sports, vacation trips, church support 
and benevolences. Personal goods cover barber’s fees, toilet 
articles, gifts, candy and tobacco. Insurance goods include 
premiums paid on life, endowment, health or accident policies 
during the year. Unclassified goods include burials, cemetery 
lots and other goods, the purpose of which is not specified. 
The classification outlined above has been evolved from the 
many factors or elements reported as the economic goods of 
family living. The value of goods furnished by the farm and 
the value of goods provided by direct purchase represent an addi- 
tional cross-classification. 


VALUE OF FAMILY LIVING FURNISHED BY THE FARM 


The average value of all family living furnished by the farm 
for the 2,883 families ranges from $428 in Schoharie county, 
New York, to $833 in selected localities of Missouri (Table 1). 
The average value for all families is $634. This average in- 
cludes foods, $395, use of the farm house (10 per cent of the 
arbitrary value of the house) $187, and fuel $52. Food consti- 
tutes the highest percentage of the value of all goods furnished, 
the proportion being 62.4 for food, 29.5 for use of the house 


Farmers’ STANDARDS OF LiIvING 17 


and 8.1 for fuel (Table 2). Alabama presents the highest 
average value of foods furnished, a higher proportion than that 
of any other state. Schoharie county, New York, shows the low- 
est average value of foods furnished, $224, or 52.4 per cent 
of the value of all goods furnished. 


TABLE | 


The average value per family of goods furnished by the farm and purchased, 
and the proportions which the values furnished and purchased bear to 
total goods used, for the year ending December 31, 1923. Two thousand 
eight hundred and eighty-three farm families of selected localities of the 
United States. Owners (2,014), tenants (808) and hired men (61). 





“4 Total value] Furnished by 
Size of of all goods the farm Purchased 
No. of ar 
States fami- Famj House- Per- 
lies |Family | “hold | Amount Amt.|Percent] Amt.| cent 
$ of total $ of 
Pers’ns|Pers’ns total 


a ee a a a SS ey 


Massachusetts 81 








3.8 4.6 1,948.1 704.3 36.1 1,243.8] 63.9 
Connecticut .}| 110] 4.3 4.7 1,492.6 533.5 35.8 959.1] 64.2 
New York ...] 498 3.6 4.1 1,077.6 428.0 39.7 649.6] 60.3 
Ohiowniys, 383 4.1 4.3 1,540.8 639.8 41.5 901.0} 58.5 
TOWai tess 472 4.4 4.5 1,669.2 692.8 41.5 976.4] 58.5 
Kansas .....| 406 4.4 4.7 1,492.0 604.9 40.5 887.1} 59.5 
Missouri ....| 178 4.0 4.4 1,896.8 832.7 43.9 | 1,064.1) 56.1 
Kentucky ...| 370 4.2 4.6 1,488.3 650.1 43.7 838.2] 56.3 
Alabama ....}| 385 4.7 Sl yes hard 757.4 48.2 814.3] 51.8 
All States... .|2,883 4.2 4.6 1,503.9 633.7 42.1 870.2) 57.9 


A part of the variation in the values and the distribution of 
values of the different groups of goods furnished may be due 
to different climatic conditions, different types of farming and 
different prices, especially of foods and fuel. Severe winters call 
for more fuel in Massachusetts than in Alabama. ‘The amount 
of wood available from the farm varies in the different states. 
Similarly, housing demands vary with the severity of the cli- 
mate and with the prevailing housing standards of the farming 
communities. The type of farming influences the value of 
foods, and consequently the proportion that the value of these 
foods bears to the total value of all goods furnished. Finally, 
higher prices enhance the value of food or fuel in certain 
states, 

Size of family has some significance in this connection. This 


18 HanpBook oF RurRaAt SociaL RESOURCES 


factor, as well as food-using and fuel-using habits of farm * 
families, calls for further analysis. Amounts of food and fuel 

wasted, as well as the adequacy of the amounts used, need to be 

determined. Out of such analyses may come definite plans for 
securing an increased proportion of food and fuel from the 

farm. 


FAMILY LIVING PURCHASED 


The value of family goods furnished by the farm constitutes 
from one-third to one-half of the total value of the family 
living, the average being 42.1 per cent for all families here 
reported. ‘Thus, approximately 58.0 per cent of the farm fam- 
ily living is provided by direct purchase. ‘The proportion that 
the value of all goods purchased bears to the total value of all 
goods used varies from 51.8 per cent in Alabama to 64.2 per cent 
in Connecticut. ‘The average value of all goods purchased, $870 
for all families (Table 1), ranges from $650 for Schoharie 
county, New York, to $1,244 for selected localities of 
Massachusetts. 

For all families the average value of foods purchased amounts 
to 25.7 per cent of all goods purchased; clothing 25.3 per cent; 
furniture, 4.7 per cent; operation goods, 18.1 per cent; health 
maintenance goods, 6.8 per cent; advancement goods and serv- 
ices, 10.9 per cent; personal goods, 4.1 per cent; insurance pre- 
miums, 4.1 per cent, and unclassified goods, 0.3 per cent. 

Some of the more noteworthy points brought out in studying 
clothing are: that the costs for wives and daughters are higher 
than for husbands and sons, with the exception of daughters and 
sons in the age groups of 6-11 and 1-5 years, and that the cost 
of clothing increases rapidly for both sons and daughters from 
the age of 6-11 to the age of about 24, after which it declines 
noticeably. 

The value of furnishings and furniture purchased, averaging 
$41, ranges from $27 in Connecticut to $64 in Missouri. 

The value of operation goods and services purchased, which 
averages $158, ranges from $78 in New York to $206 in Ken- 
tucky. Included under operation goods purchased by all fami- 


FARMERS STANDARDS OF LIVING 19 


lies (Table 5) are fuel, $41.50, hired help in the household, 
$11; household supplies, $10.20; laundry done outside the 
home, $4.30; use of the automobile (including depreciation) 
for household purposes, $74.10; feed and maintenance cost of 
horse and buggy for household use, $5; carfare and bus fare, 
$1.10; telephone charge for household use, $5.80; postage, ex- 
press and freight, $2.10; insurance on furnishings, $1.10, and 
ice for household use, $1.60. 

The cost for the maintenance of health which averages $59, 
varies from $37 in New York to $85 in Iowa. 

The value of advancement goods, which averages $94, ranges 
from $58 in New York to $170 in Massachusetts. Advance- 
ment goods include formal education averaging $30.90 per fam- 
ily; reading matter, $11.00; organization dues, $3.50; church 
and Sunday school, including missions, $25.60;'Red Cross and 
other welfare, $.80; and recreation, including special trips, 
$22.60. 

The value of personal goods averaging $36, varies from $12 
in New York to $65 in Missouri. Under personal goods are gifts 
to members of the family and to others, $13.30; jewelry, $1.20; 
barber’s fees and toilet articles, $8.40; candy, gum, sodas, etc., 
$3.90, and tobacco, pipes, etc., $9.20. 

The premiums paid on life and health insurance policies, 
averaging $35.30, range from $17 in New York to $58 in Iowa. 

The value of goods not readily classified, which averages 
$2.50, ranges from $.10 in Missouri to $6.50 in Kentucky. 

With goods and services purchased as well as goods furnished, 
variations may be due in part to climatic conditions and to geo- 
graphic locations. The amounts of food and fuel purchased 
depend upon the amounts available from the farms. Local 
prices have some effect, size of family, habits of living, available 
income, and sources of goods and services call for further anal- 
yses with regard to the amounts, varieties and values of the 
principal kinds of goods purchased in relation to the amounts, 
varieties and values of the goods available from the farm. 


20 Hanpsook oF Rurau SocitaAL REsouRCES 


TOTAL VALUE OF FAMILY LIVING 


The total value of family living is made up of the values of 
goods furnished and purchased. ‘This value ranges from $1,078 
in Schoharie county, New York, to $1,948 in selected localities 
of Massachusetts, with an average value of $1,504 for all fami- 
lies of all states. The average values of family living for the 
other states studied are $1,488, $1,492, $1,493, $1,541, $1,572, 
$1,669, $1,897 (for Kentucky, Kansas, Connecticut, Ohio, Ala- 
bama, Iowa and Missouri in the order named). ‘The causes of 
variation in the average value of family living have been named 
in connection with goods furnished by the farm and purchased. 


HOW THE TOTAL VALUE OF FAMILY LIVING IS DISTRIBUTED 


A distribution of the total value of family living among the 
principal groups of items is shown in Table 5. ‘The proportion 
that the value of food bears to the value of all goods used, 41.2 
per cent, ranges from 37.0 per cent in Ohio to 48.8 per cent 
in Alabama. ‘The proportion that clothing costs bear to the 
total value of all goods, 14.7 per cent, varies from 12.6 in 
Massachusetts to 16.1 in Alabama. ‘The proportion that the 
rental value of the house bears to the value of all goods, 12.4 
per cent, ranges from 7.5 per cent in Alabama to 16.6 per cent 
in Ohio. The percentage of the total value of all goods de- 
voted to furniture and furnishings, averaging 2.7, varies from 1.8 
per cent in Connecticut to 3.4 per cent in New York. The 
percentage expended on operation goods averaging 13.9, varies 
from 10.7 per cent in Alabama to 17.4 per cent in New York. 
The percentage used for the maintenance of health, averaging 
3.9, varies from 2.8 per cent in Alabama to 5.1 per cent in 
Iowa. ‘The percentage devoted to advancement goods, averaging 
6.3, varies from 4.9 per cent in Ohio to 8.7 per cent in Massa- 
chusetts. ‘The amount used for personal goods, averaging 2.4 
per cent, ranges from 1.1 per cent in New York to 3.4 per cent 
in Missouri and the portion used for insurance premiums, 2.3 
per cent, varies from 1.6 per cent in New York to 3.5 per cent 
in lowa. 


FARMERS STANDARDS OF LIVING 21 


TaBieE II 


The average value per family for the principal groups of goods furnished 
by the farm and purchased and the distribution of the average value among 
the principal groups of goods for the year ending December 31, 1923. 
Two thousand, eight hundred and eighty-three farm families of selected 
localities of the United States. Owners, 2,014; tenants, 808; and hired 
men, 61 


Furnished Proportion 
by farm Purchased Total of total 


$ 
Petar sR CLD rete vic’ 633.7 870.2 1,503.9 | Percent 
Food, including groceries ..... a9535 223.9 619.2 
MOTOCH im annie te Pie lakes omar te or le Cy a 220.3 220.3 
Rent (10% value of house)... 187.0 = 187.0 
Furnishings and equipment ... 
aah ain EXPenses ......60.. 


oe eee eer er eee eee eee 


ee | 
bd 
= 
\o 
bo 
_ — es 
ee eee 
ON RNID 


SS ae eo 
HONE HOHOHWHON 


Household supplies ...... 
. Laundry outside ........ 
Automobile, inc. deprec... 
Horse and buggy .......: 
MALEATE Heid Welelel uhelacal wi akuletans 
ML GLEDN ONE W Giacs\ne cles sieleys. 6 
Postage, exp. & freight... 
Insur. on fur. & equip.... 
CONN oe uicketola ote et beatae’ po 


ee rhe BO op 
“NY 


IAG VATICEINENt) Wile ste lelsielsratets ros 
Formal education ....... 
. Reading matter ......... 
. Organization dues ....... 
. Church, S.S. and Missions 
. Red Cross & other welfare 
Recreation | Ra iaisi aclele eeatee S 


m= OD 
bo reece 


=e 
ADANSL 


rho LO 
to t 
° 


is | 


_ 
Mwy op Ww 


RO U1 WH COP 


HUET OWEILY sels oi sie etelslelle ne. Ore tee 
c. Toilet articles, etc. ..... 
d. Candy, gum, sodas ...... 
e. Tobacco, pipes, etc. ..... 
Insurance (life and health)... 
Unclassified ..... ieee ate: aeike 


Bet bie et lets 


w 


= 
ea 
28 
o 
=] 
rt) 
=) 
re) 
ia) 
°o 
Fh 
i” 
19) 
= 
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SESUGuSRBUR RG RASR SUBSE esha e 
wn 


o2lllllgllllilestti li ttittel 


ines 
=A 
bob 





Comparison of the Distribution of Goods Used by Farm Fami- 
lies and Industrial Families—The proportions that the values of 
the principal groups of goods bear to the total value of all goods 
used may be compared with similar proportions for approximately 
12,000 industrial families studied by the United States Depart- 
ment of Labor about 1918.1 In the industrial families, 38.2 
per cent of the $1,434 worth of goods used, went for food, in 


1 “Cost of Living in the United States,’’ Monthly Labor Review, Bureau 
of Labor Statistics, U. S. Department of Labor, August, 1919, p. 119. 


Abs Hanpspook oF RurAt SociaL REsouRCES 


comparison with 41.2 per cent of the total value of all goods for 
farm families. Similarly the proportion of the total going for 
fuel and light, 5.3 per cent, is lower than that for the farm 
families, 6.2 per cent. On the other hand the proportions for 
clothing, rent, and furnishings are higher for the industrial 
families, the proportions being 16.6 per cent, 13.4 per cent and 
5.1 per cent, as compared with 14.7 per cent, 12.4 per cent and 
2.7 per cent for the farm families. The proportion for all 
other purposes is higher for the farm families, 22.8 per cent in 
comparison with 21.3 per cent. The industrial families are 
larger, 4.9 persons per household, in comparison with 4.6 persons 
per household for the farm families. 

The higher percentages of the total value of all living for 
food for the farm families may mean that the farm families 
wasted more food and probably consumed more food since a 
greater abundance of food from the farm usually means less 
careful and more liberal use of those foods. ‘The same assump- 
tion applies to fuel. 

The lower percentage of the total for clothing among farm 
families is due in part to the higher percentages for food and 
fuel. In addition, farm families by nature of their occupation, 
their more limited social contacts or their greater inaccessibility 
to clothing stores may actually consume less clothing. ‘The lower 
percentage for rent by the farm families is due to the higher 
percentages for food and fuel and to the lower valuations of 
farm houses owing to location and to the tendency of the farmer 
to undervalue the use of his house for actual living purposes. 
Similarly, the percentage for furnishings may be low because 
food and fuel are high and because a lesser amount is purchased 
by farm families. It is probable that the more frequent mov- 
ing or shifting of industrial families means wear, breakage and 
disposal of furnishings to the extent that replacement costs are 
enhanced as compared with those for farm families. 

Variation in the Distribution of Values of the Principal Groups 
of Goods with Increase in the Total Value of all Goods——The 
figures presented above deal with the distribution for the aver- 
age level of living only. It is of interest to note how the farm 


FarRMERS STANDARDS OF LIVING 23 


families vary their distribution of expenditures as the size of 
their total expenditures changes. 

The results previously referred to of a general study of the 
standard of living among approximately 12,000 working men’s 
families of 92 localities throughout the United States,” show 
that as the total expenditure for family living increases a larger 
proportion goes for purposes other than food, rent, fuel and 
light. On the other hand the proportion of the total expendi- 
ture going for the so-called necessities falls quite noticeably. 
Results of a similar study of the cost of living among 11,000 
working men’s families of the principal industrial centers of 33 
states, about 1902,* show the same trend except that the propor- 
tion for rent remains almost constant. In the earlier study made 
by Engel among working men’s families of Belgium and re- 
viewed by Chapin the proportion spent for clothing * remained 
about the same, as did the proportions for rent and fuel and light. 

From an analysis of the of the 2,883 farm family records 
it is noted that as the total value of all goods used increases: 

(2) The percentage going for food decreases, although the 
percentage of the total value of food furnished by the farm 
remains constant. 

(2) The percentage for clothing increases markedly although 
although somewhat irregularly. ‘This corresponds to the 20th 
century industrial families but differs widely from the 19th 
century European families. 

(c) The percentage for rent remains constant or increases 
very slightly. ‘This is similar to the European families and to 
United States industrial families studied about 1902. It is 
different from the United States industrial families, studied 
about 1918, for which rent showed a considerable decrease. 

(d) The percentage for all other goods [than rent, food and 
clothing] increases. ‘This is in accordance with all other fami- 
lies studied. For the more important groups of these goods: 


2 “Cost of Living in the United States,’ Monthly Labor Review, Bureau of 
Labor Statistics, U. S. Department of Labor, August, L919 Th: 119, 
§ “Cost of Living and Retail Prices of Food,” 18th Annual Report of the 
Commissioner of Labor, 1903. 
* Chapin, Robert C., The Standard of Living Among Working Men’s Fam- 
thes in New York City, 1909, 


24 Hanppook oF Rurau SocraL REsouRcES 


(1) The percentage for operation goods, including fuel and 
lighting, remains about the same or decreases slightly. 

(2) The percentage for goods for personal uses remains about 
the same. ’ 

(3) The percentage for furnishings, maintenance of health 
and life, and health insurance increase. 

(4) The percentage for advancement goods and services in- 
creases markedly and quite regularly. 

(e) The percentage of goods furnished by the farm decreases 
markedly and fairly regularly. 

The foregoing data are presented primarily as a means of 
stressing the basic factors or elements of family living and the 
costs, along with the distribution of these costs, at which the basic 
elements are provided. ‘They are not considered as an adequate 
basis for comparing farm family living with the living of other 
groups with regard to comfort and attractiveness of the house 
and grounds, opportunities for improvement and participation in 
community activities. The results here given are suggestive of 
further analyses in an attempt to get at the facts in regard to 
values and uses of the many elements of the farm family’s living. 
Eventually, from these facts a plan may be worked out whereby 
farm families may enjoy a standard of living commensurate with 
that of families of other trades and professions, ‘This may mean 
a plea for greater returns from farming. It will surely mean a 
better understanding by various members of the farm family 
of the comparative values of the economic goods used and knowl- 
edge of: when, how much and for what purposes to spend. It 
should mean an inclination to profit by mistakes already made 
in spending and a decision to save something, if only a little, 
systematically. It must mean the giving of as much attention 
to the spending of the dollar already earned, in order that this 
dollar may provide the utmost satisfaction, as is now given to 
the mere making of another dollar without consideration of the 
manner of its spending. 

The Distribution of the Value of Goods Used as an Index of 
Standard of Living.—The distribution of the value of all goods 
used among the principal groups of goods offers a fairly satis- 


FARMERS STANDARDS OF LIVING 25 


factory method of determining how well families actually live. 
The most worth-while values in life grow out of the use of non- 
material goods, known as cultural, that is, educational, recrea- 
tional, and so on, provided of course, that the needs for food, 
clothing, shelter, and other material goods have been met. 

The proportion which the value of each of the several groups 
of goods bears to the total value of all goods is one of the best 
available measures of the standard of living. ‘The results of a 
general study of the cost of living among approximately 12,000 
working men’s families of 92 localities throughout the United 
States about 1918,° show that as the total value of all goods 
used increases, a larger proportion of this total value is for pur- 
poses other than food, rent, fuel and light. Conversely, as the 
total value rises the proportion going for the so-called necessi- 
ties falls quite noticeably. Results of an earlier study of the 
cost of living among 11,000 working men’s families of the 
principal industrial centers of 33 states, about 1902,° show the 
same trend, except that the proportion for rent remains almost 
constant as the total value of all goods rises. 

Since there is a tendency for the proportion which the values 
of the non-material goods bear to the total value of all goods 
used to rise as the total value increases, the distribution of values 
among the various groups is considered quite as indicative, if not 
more so, of the standard of living, as is the total value of all 
goods used. The distribution of goods which is less affected 
than the total value of goods by varying prices, is preferable to 
the total value of goods as a means of comparing the standards 
of living among families of different periods, different localities 
and different trades or occupations. 


* “Cost of Living in the United States,” Monthly Labor Review, Bureau 
of Labor Statistics, United States Department of Labor, August, 1919, p. 119. 

* “Cost of Living and Retail Prices of Food,” Eighteenth Annual Report 
of the Commissioner of Labor, 1903. 


III 
THE DEVELOPMENT OF RURAL ART 


ANNA MANSFIELD CLARK 
National Board of the Y. W. C. A. 


“Not only around our infancy 
Doth heaven with all its splendors lie: 
Daily, with souls that cringe and plot, 
We Sinais climb and know it not.” 
James Russell Lowell 


Rural art movements in the United States have begun to find 
expression. Here and there a great leader has opened the door 
of beauty and appreciation, and hundreds of people have dis- 
covered within themselves the emotional experiences of color 
and line, music and rhythm which are the great gifts of God 
to those who live in the open spaces. 

That these experiences of beauty have not been released 
largely in creative art—such as music, drama, poetry, painting, 
craft work, architecture and landscape gardening—is one of the 
tragedies of American rural civilization. ‘The pioneer was too 
busy subduing the wilderness and the farm people of to-day 
struggle under such a burden of manual labor that their experi- 
ence in connection with the objects of nature is one of fatigue 
rather than appreciation. Our educational system has neglected 
the stimulation of the appreciations and the skills of art, and the 
channeling of the emotions, and since we have not been trained 
to express ourselves in creative beauty our emotions run riot in 
strange ways. 

Gutzon Borglum has said: “The task of the artist is to 
reach down into the lives of people and lift up their souls 
where they can see them.” ‘The soul of rural America is be- 

26 


THE DEVELOPMENT OF RURAL ART 27 


ginning to lift itself slowly but surely above material struggle 
into a world where imagination and an appreciation of beauty 
transform and add a glory to life. 


DRAMA 


Perhaps the most notable art movement in rural America 
during the last twenty years has been the development of a 
folk drama. “It was in 1906 that Frederick H. Koch made a 
‘barnstorming tour’ of the treeless levels of North Dakota 
from the University at Grand Forks. The University players 
played The Rivals and followed that with other old favorites 
clearing the ground for a people’s drama. ‘The dramatic in- 
terest that followed developed two types—the pageant, a dis- 
tinctly communal form, enlisting all the people, and the folk 
play an intimate portrayal of the life and character of the 
people of the plains.” 2 

Dr. Koch was called to the Chair of Dramatic Literature at 
the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C., in 1918, 
but North Dakota has continued to attract the attention of those 
interested in rural drama. Alfred G. Arvold has for 16 years 
been building the Little Country Theater so that it is now the 
“Heart of that Prairie State.” Every resource is there from 
a most notable reference library to costumes, plays, programs 
and suggestions for all types of entertainment in all types of 
places. Not only have the best plays of all ages been given 
by country people in North Dakota but they themselves have 
written and produced their own drama with artistic finish and 
a genuineness of expression that signifies that it is not play- 
acting but life itself that they are portraying. Drama in North 
Dakota is truly “not a luxury for the classes but an instrument 
for the enlightenment, self-expression and enjoyment of the 
masses,”” # 

When Dr. Koch transferred his interests to North Carolina 
he organized the Carolina Playmakers, who are becoming a 


1 Carolina Folk Plays, First Series and Second Series. 
2 Alfred G. Arvold, The Little Country Theatre. 


28 HanpBook oF RuRAL SocitaL RESOURCES 


great influence in the field of American art, for they are build- 
ing a drama on the folklore, legends and traditions and lives 
of North Carolina people. Although they are plays of a 
single state they have a wider significance. ‘We know that 
if we speak for the human nature in our own neighborhood 
we shall be expressing for all. ‘The locality if it be truly in- 
terpreted is the only universal. It has been so in all lasting 
literature, and in every locality all over America, as in North 
Carolina, there is the need and the striving for a fresh expres- 
sion of our common folk life.” * In these folk plays are por- 
trayed the legends of the coast country, its buried treasure, the 
quaint life of its fisher folk and the pirates of the coast. In 
them also is the isolation of the mountains, the comedy, tragedy, 
and superstition of the past and present. The historical inci- 
dents of the state, both legendary and authentic, are rich in 
dramatic values. These plays are written in the university 
course in dramatic composition and produced by the playmakers 
on a home-made stage. ‘They are then played in the locality 
where the story originated. “It is an interesting experience 
to participate with the audience in such a performance. If the 
log cabin used in a play of fisher people contains logs larger 
than the trees in the section, if the rocks in the fire place could 
not have existed in that locality, if there is a flaw in the 
dialect, the author and producer will be sure to hear about 
it.’ * The influence of the Carolina Playmakers has now be- 
come state wide and with helpful suggestions from the uni- 
versity, creative dramatic art is being developed throughout the 
state by many groups of people. 

The Cornell dramatic club was organized in 1907 to pre- 
sent contemporary European drama seldom seen on the American 
stage. In 1919 some European and American plays were given 
at the State Fair and met with such overwhelming success that 
interest in rural drama has been greatly stimulated in New 
York state, and the Little Country Theater has become an 
important feature of the county fairs, There were thirteen 


® The Carolina Folk Plays. 
* [bid. 


THe DEVELOPMENT OF RuRAL ART 29 


little country theaters at various fairs last year and plans were 
made for five more this year. The usual procedure is to erect 
a tent with a stage at one end, simple scenery is made or cur- 
tains are used as a background, and groups from various parts 
of the county put on plays that have been tried out in their own 
communities. In most cases the home bureau takes the respon- 
sibility for the project in codperation with the fair association 
but the plays are presented by any organization in the county 
that wishes to do so. These plays are judged on the quality 
of production and first, second and third prizes are awarded, 
but cash prizes are not usually given. Instead each group pro- 
ducing a play is allowed a small sum to cover the cost of 
production.°® 

The Department of Rural Sociology of Cornell in codperation 
with the New York Grange, the Federation of County Farm 
Bureau Associations, the State Home Bureau Federation and 
the Grange, League and Farm-Bureau Federation is conducting 
a contest with prizes for the best plays presenting sympathetically 
some phase of rural life. These plays will be published by 
the university which now has various plays and pageants and 
helpful bulletins on the little country theater and play 
production. 

The School of Agriculture of the University of Minnesota, 
University Farm, St. Paul, Minn., lays great stress on dramatics, 
giving its students systematic training in the production of 
plays. One form of summer project for which a student re- 
ceives scholastic credit is the direction of a play in his home 
community. Minnesota is standing for the best in rural drama 
and pageantry and under Miss Katherine Kester’s able leadership 
is doing much for dramatic production.® . 

The State College of Agriculture at Athens, Georgia, through 
artistically produced plays and pageants is emphasizing better 
farm life and pride in the history and agricultural development 
of Georgia. Thousands of people flock to see the pageants 

®A. M. Drummond, The Country Theatre, Cornell Reading Course, Les- 


son 153, 
¢ “Play and the Farmer,” Drama, May-November, 1924. 


30 Hanpspook oF RurRAL SocrAL REsoURCES 


which are given in the beautiful open air amphitheater of the 
college during the summer session, at the farmers’ conference 
and on other special occasions. ‘This movement is under the 
leadership of Miss Laura E. Blackshear. ‘The pageants and 
plays will be published in bulletin form. 

The University of New Hampshire, Durham, N. H., is be- 
ginning a drama movement with the express purpose of sub- 
stituting for the old idea of farm people as inferior folk the 
modern idea of farm people and farm homes. Henry Bailey 
Stevens’ two plays City Rubes and All Alone in the Country 
have been used widely both in New Hampshire and other states. 
These are the forerunners of artistic work as yet unpublished 
which depicts the struggle of New Hampshire folk with the 


forces of nature. 
RELIGIOUS DRAMA 


Religious drama has received great impetus from the appoint- 
ment in some denominations of persons in charge of drama 
and pageantry. ‘The Federal Council of Churches working 
with these experts has produced for the last two years two 
volumes of religious drama which have been selected with great 
care from hundreds of manuscripts. ‘“‘These plays have been 
selected with regard to religious message, dramatic technique, 
literary quality and educational merit. With these standards 
in mind the types of plays selected have been: First, biblical 
dramas and episodes; second, fellowship plays and pageants, 
centering around Christian community building both at home 
and abroad, and third, extra-biblical plays of the individual, 
spiritual life.’ * ‘The value of this emphasis for the country 
community both through the denominations and this centralizing 
effort to make religious drama artistic and therefore more 
educational cannot be overestimated. In 1924 and 1925 a 
School of Religious Drama was held at Auburn, N. Y., and 
courses on drama and pageantry have also been given at the 
institutes of the Epworth League and Sunday school conferences. 


™ Religious Dramas, 1924. 


THE DEVELOPMENT OF RURAL ART 31 


ART EXTENSION IN ILLINOIS 7 


The purpose of the Art Extension Committee is “‘to assist 
in making art a more potent elevating force in the lives of the 
people of the state of Illinois. It aims to help the people to 
discover beauty in nature and to enjoy it, to recognize beauty 
in art and to appreciate it, and to stimulate the production of 
beautiful things.” 

In the development of this comprehensive purpose the Art 
Extension Committee has gradually come into existence. The 
communities of the state desiring to codperate in such a move- 
ment are represented on this committee. ‘The usual procedure 
is the formation of a local committee of from three or four 
to a dozen or fifteen men and women representing the impor- 
tant institutions and organizations. ‘The chairman of this local 
committee represents that community on the state-wide Art 
Extension Committee. Such a local committee does not take 
the place of or in any way displace the organizations represented. 
It is, instead, a kind of a clearing house between these associa- 
tions, providing a common ground for the promotion of things 
most essential in the common life. One of the most interesting 
and helpful projects of this Art Extension Committee has been 
an annual tour of some part of Illinois. ‘The trips have been 
so arranged that the most beautiful parts of the state may in 
time become more familiar to the people. 


THE LANDSCAPE BACKGROUND FOR AMERICAN RURAL LIFE ?° 


One of the most important conditions and characteristics of 
rural life everywhere is its landscape background. ‘The impor- 
tance of this landscape is only beginning to be recognized and 
here and there faint efforts are being made to conserve, im- 
prove, and utilize it. Properly utilized it will add enormously 
to the cultural and spiritual resources of the people who live 
in the country, and indeed also to city dwellers who only visit 


ae E. Hieronymus, “Art Extension in Illinois,’ Rural America, May, 
1 . 
10 Contributed by Professor Frank A. Waugh, Amherst, Mass. 


32 HanpBook oF Rurau SocitaAL REsouRCcES 


the country. It is of the utmost importance, therefore, to 
consider the human value of this background, learn how men 
and women come in contact with it and what the results of that 
contact are as shown in their lives. There is not room in this 
article to touch upon all these fundamental questions, but assum- 
ing their importance, we may proceed to some discussion of 
what is going on in the rural world which may lead in this 
direction. 

A considerable number of colleges and universities are now 
teaching landscape architecture, which has been thus far the 
primary basis for country planning. ‘Though other forces are 
involved it would appear that landscape architecture will long 
have preéminence in this particular field. 

The American Society of Landscape Architects is an active 
organization of professional men engaged in landscape archi- 
tecture. These men are interested in the development of public 
parks, recreation grounds, in the conservation of native land- 
scape, and in city and country planning. Their influence may 
always be counted upon, therefore, in the right direction.™* 

Recently there has been organized a large ** national com- 
mittee dealing primarily with outdoor recreation. ‘This com- 
mittee is making a special effort toward the conservation and 
utilization of resources in national forests, national parks, state 
forests, state parks, etc. 

The women’s clubs are now doing a great deal for the cultural 
advancement of our population. Most of these clubs have 
committees or sections dealing with conservation, public recrea- 
tion or similar matters.) ‘The women’s clubs, therefore, offer 
admirable centers from which this work can be carried on. 

The granges offer similar opportunities. They are closely 
in touch with the rural population, their outlook is definitely 
cultural, and they are able to do much in the defense of all 
rural resources and also in the development of a wider apprecia- 
tion of these resources. 

Avchussia) 18: Drewmane Sec oeuat Mactan fran Senora 


Mr. Arthur Ringland is secretary of the National Confe " 
door Recreation, Washington, D. C. rence on Out 


Tue DEVELOPMENT OF RuRAL ART 33 


The public schools have given some study to conservation 
as a national policy. At the proper time and under suitable 
leadership they can give more attention to this subject, and the 
work of the schools can be extended to include especially a 
wider appreciation of the landscape background. 

There is a vast unorganized enthusiasm for the out-of-doors 
and for what it means in our civilization. These unorganized 
forces can still be brought together wherever proper nuclei are 
found, and as soon as they have suitable direction may be ex- 
pected to give great assistance. 

In several different states definite extension work has been 
undertaken by the agricultural colleges in the field of country 
planning. For the most part these aim at the improvement of 
country school grounds, farmyards and country roads. In 
the state of Iowa, for example, a very active commission has 
been developing a fine series of state parks. ‘The state park 
movement is also active and successful in a number of other 
states, especially Connecticut, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania and 
New York. 

These are merely illustrations of the kind of activity which 
may lead toward a better understanding and wider use of the 
landscape background. These activities need to be widely 
multiplied, better organized and better directed; and it is further 
desirable that new leadership should find new ways of attack- 
ing this very great problem. 


MUSIC 


During the summer of 1924, $557,838 was paid by seven 
hundred “fairs” for music programs. ‘The amount ranged from 
fifty dollars paid to a local band to $40,000, which was the cost 
to one fair association of engaging celebrated bands and noted 
singers and providing contests and prizes, The New York and 
California state fairs have held band contests and offered large 
cash prizes. California reports that the largest entry list is 
always with amateur classes which consist of boys’ bands, The 
Eastern States Exposition at Springfield, Massachusetts, has for 


34 Hanppook oF Rurat SocitaL RESOURCES 


three seasons held a junior music festival and contest which 
has encouraged greater musical achievement, and because of this 
encouragement many junior music organizations have received 
wider community support."* 

The value of the music memory contest lies more in the 
intensive work done by the children in familiarizing themselves 
with good music and preparing themselves for the competition 
than in the competition itself. ‘There is no reason why rural 
districts should not keep pace with the very rapid spread of 
this movement in urban centers.“* Memory contests have been 
promoted recently in 17 counties, and state-wide movements 
including the rural areas have been promoted in six states. 

The educational work of the Victor Talking Machine Com- 
pany under the direction of Mrs. Frances E. Clark at Camden, 
New Jersey, is a real force in developing musical appreciation. 
The Company has musical directors who illustrate their talks 
with records and are available without remuneration for large 
rural gatherings. Help may also be obtained from Mrs. Clark 
on musical subjects. Her department has made a special feature 
of music for rural schools. 

The Eisteddfod Movement in Southern California is an at- 
tempt to adapt a splendid Welsh institution to America. The 
movement began in Ventura County through the community 
service organization in 1924 and consisted of a week of music, 
drama and art competitions, with the codperation of every com- 
munity in the county. This met with such success that an 
Eisteddfod comprising the entire southern California district 
has been organized. ‘The contests embrace all departments of 
music including elementary and high school music groups, 
church choirs and choruses, community orchestras, community 
drama, and in some districts contests in the various branches 
of art. | 

At the mid-winter crop show held at the Northwest School 
of Agriculture, Crookston, Minnesota, it has been the custom 

18 Music at the Fairs, National Bureau for the Advancement of Music, 
45 West 45th Street, New York. 


14 Organization of County and State Music Memory Contests, National 
Bureau for the Advancement of Music, 45 West 45th Street, New York. 


THE DEVELOPMENT OF RuRAL ART 35 


to bring in groups of singers from different communities. At 
the Michigan State College of Agriculture, East Lansing, 
Michigan, each year when the farmers’ day program is given 
a town and country church choir singing contest is held. The 
contest is held in the forenoon of farmers’ day and in the 
afternoon at the general program the winning choirs sing. 

For years Mrs. Rose Morgan has been carrying on a veritable 
crusade for songs in homes. She speaks for songs that live and 
have an art value and a heart value, that carry tradition and 
beauty and have ‘“‘age-long standards of loyalty, purity and 
truth. . . . If we are to become a music-loving nation,” Mrs. 
Morgan says, “we must have American music. It must smack 
of our soil. It must embody the character and express the 
tendency and trend of American life. It must bear the marks 
of our weal and woe. It must show in strongly marked rhythms 
the effect of our developed and developing national energy. 
It must be the faithful interpreter of the true America.” *° 

National Music Week is promoted through a large national 
committee on which rural interests are represented by members 
from the American Country Life Association, the American 
Farm Bureau Federation and the national Grange. State Farm 
Bureau Federations, superintendents of instruction, extension 
directors and Granges are making these weeks a success. It is 
a drive by the friends of music for a wider appreciation and its 
strength comes from the universal yet sometimes unconscious 
human need for music. Participation ranges all the way from 
an elaborate concert to the simple home gathering around the 
radio or phonograph. In the helpful suggestions sent out by 
the National Music Week Committee, New York, are resources 
for any and all communities. 

The National Bureau for the Advancement of Music is under 
the direction of Mr. C. M. Tremaine, 45 West 45th Street, 
New York City. It is a clearing house for the best in music. 
Here any person who has the desire to advance music in home, 
church, school or community may obtain information. ‘The 


2% Rose Morgan, Songs That Live, Cornell Reading Courses No. 10, Ithaca, 
New York. 


36 Hanpspook oF Rurau SocrAL REsouRCES 


specific things on which the Bureau has placed its suggestive 
emphasis and stimulating resource are the music memory con- 
tests, music weeks, Christmas Eve caroling, and the publication 
of bulletins showing the advancement of special musical move- 
ments throughout the nation. 

The state universities of the West and Middle West, par- 
ticularly, are doing considerable work in developing musical 
activities and musical interest in the smaller communities, and 
this work is done frequently through their extension depart- 
ments. Thus, for instance, the University of Wisconsin at 
Madison has prepared a well organized course in music apprecia- 
tion to be given over the radio. The Extension Department 
of the University of California arranges courses of concerts and 
lectures which may be secured at low rates by the local com- 
munities. The Universities of North Dakota, South Dakota and 
Minnesota, the State Teachers College at Emporia, Kansas, the 
Agricultural College of Michigan, and many others, organize 
contests in musical performance, including bands, orchestras, 
glee clubs, etc. 

The Playground and Recreation Association of America has 
published a number of bulletins for the aid of those interested 
in developing music in the rural communities. Among these 
are bulletins relating to the community orchestra, American folk 
songs (like the Stephen Foster melodies), Christmas caroling, 
Easter caroling, and also the comprehensive Community Music 
Handbook. Most of the bulletins are sold for 10 cents per 


copy. 


IV 
RURAL EDUCATION 


ERNEST BURNHAM 


Department of Rural Education, Western State Normal School, 
Michigan 


Rural education is concerned with 12,000,000 children in 
the United States, of whom 9,000,000 are in farm homes and 
3,000,000 are living in villages and hamlets. (These are the 
latest estimates of the Federal Bureau of Education.) In addi- 
tion the adult population, which is caring for these rural 
children, is being educated. Therefore the problem under dis- 
cussion has to do with a total of approximately 50,000,000 
people. ‘Tendencies in present efforts at the solution of this 
vast and complex problem may be seen to advantage within 
the limits set for this article by dividing the whole field into 
five major parts: (1) the public schools, (2) institutions of 
higher learning, (3) governmental agencies, (4) voluntary or- 
ganizations, (5) research and publicity. 


THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 


Public school service in the United States is based upon the 
fundamental American principle of equality of opportunity for 
all citizens—child and adult, rich and poor, accessible and 
isolated—at the earliest date possible under the conditioning 
circumstances. In many localities and in some whole states it 
is obvious that rural education is still relatively weak. The 
serious consideration here is found in the undeveloped poten- 
tialities of thousands of children and young people which results 
in shrinking the material, intellectual, and spiritual resources 


37 


38 HanppBook oF RurRaAt SociaL RESOURCES 


of the nation in an unmeasured but doubtless a very great 
degree. 

The present tendency here is toward definiteness of infor- 
mation and specific objectives. Oratory and general promotion 
still have services to render but statesmanship and professional 
achievement are in the saddle in North Carolina, California, 
Maryland and some other states. ‘These pace-making states are 
bringing the dawn of a new day which shall give to rural 
children a square deal in education. 

In school support two tendencies are clearly apparent, one 
of which looks to increasing school revenues from new and old 
state resources; and the other seeks better methods in the distri- 
bution of state funds. ‘The objectives here are to equalize 
taxation and school opportunity, without interfering with the 
maximum of local effort and initiative which is or can be 
made to become operative. Need is more and more coming 
to be the common divisor in use of public money for education. 

New methods of distribution are gaining legal footing through 
progressive legislation and court decisions. ‘The following are 
new features: state assumption of part or all the costs of pro- 
fessional supervision and attendance enforcement in counties; 
special aid to high schools; definition of minimum limits by 
which to designate poor districts eligible for additional state 
aid; and appropriation of an equalization fund designed to aid 
in paying teachers’ salaries in districts which, having levied 
the constitutional limit of local school tax, cannot maintain 
school for the minimum school year. The constitutionality of 
an important appropriation act was upheld by the Supreme Court 
of Oklahoma on September 9, 1924. 

Higher academic and professional standards are beginning to 
guard the threshold of teaching against the competition of the 
unfit. The large annual influx of immature and unprepared 
beginners has been and still is the greatest obstacle to the deri- 
vation of a real profession of teaching. ‘Two pronounced 
tendencies are matters of record here: (1) minimum qualifica- 
tions for teachers’ certificates have been considerably increased; 
and (2) facilities for training rural teachers in state and local 


RuraL EDUCATION 39 


normal schools have multiplied, and graduation from high school 
has become a minimum requirement for admission to teacher- 
training courses in most of the states. 

A few of the most advanced states now require two years’ 
work of college grade from all beginning teachers, and other 
states have been able to establish a beginning requirement of 
one year of specified preparatory work of college grade. Still 
other states have fixed the standard for beginning teachers at 
high school training, including some professional subjects; and 
in a few states teachers who have not furnished secondary 
school work are still being certificated. ‘There is a general 
tendency toward certification by way of institutional graduation 
rather than by local and state examinations. 

One hundred twenty-two state normal schools and teachers’ 
colleges now offer 257 courses in rural education. Considering 
professional dignity, preparation, and salaries, the faculty mem- 
bers giving these courses are approaching equality with those 
in the traditional departments of these schools. ‘The controlling 
ideas here are: (1) all the child citizens of the state are equally 
entitled to become the educational beneficiaries of the state; 
and (2) the collection of a state-wide tax for the benefit of 
all and allowing it to be absorbed in use to the very greatly 
disproportionate advantage of children in towns and cities, as 
illustrated in the history of state normal schools, is a demon- 
stration of administrative weakness not to be permanently 
endured. 

Twenty-three states provide teacher-training of secondary 
grade or in connection with secondary schools, In five states 
high school graduation is required for entrance to the course. 
Four states, however, are definitely discontinuing this work; 
several others have expressed a desire to do so at the earliest 
possible date. This training has been the greatest single agency 
for raising the standards of teacher preparation for rural 
schools, and it continues to serve with economy in states where 
a minimum of one year of training is yet to be achieved. A 
direct result of the growing public appreciation of the value 
and necessity of teacher-preparation may soon appear in the 


40 Hanppook oF RurRAL SocitaAL RESOURCES 


requirement of an equal minimum preparation for all begin- 
ning teachers, and when this minimum requirement exceeds 
the service capacity of local training schools, these schools will 
_have completed their work. 

In-service preparation of teachers is provided by dating re- 
quired standards ahead to safeguard and retain in the work 
teachers who are inadequately prepared. A liberal time limit 
allows them to attend summer sessions for continued training. 
Many institutions provide correspondence and class extension 
courses to meet the necessities of teachers in service. The es- 
tablishment and enforcement of better standards call for 
careful administrative leadership, and in all cases where 
judiciously directed this work has resulted in a gradual increase 
in salaries voluntarily paid by boards of education. 

The movement to employ expert supervisors gives promise 
of the greatest increase in efficiency of teachers already in 
service. Maryland, Alabama, California and several other 
states afford good examples of this prophetic tendency. In 
1924 the twenty-three counties in Maryland employed thirty- 
nine supervisors and helping teachers, which lowered the num- 
ber of teachers per supervisor to an average of fifty and 
approached somewhat the goal of forty, the standard fixed in 
the law. This work is compulsory and is financed by the state. 

In Alabama provision is made for supervision on a voluntary 
basis financed by the counties themselves. Approximately half 
the counties employ instructional supervisors. Apparently further 
progress in Alabama awaits the securing of more adequate 
financial resources. California provides state appropriation for 
the payment of rural supervisors in a manner similar to that 
in vogue for the distribution of state money for teachers’ 
salaries. In this state fifty-five of the fifty-eight counties now 
employ rural supervisors. It is estimated by the Federal Bureau 
of Education that there are now about 1,200 rural supervisors 
in the United States. 

The county unit form of organization in rural education 
appears to be the best for instituting modern professional 
service in the rural schools. It is now established with varying 


RuraL EpucaTION 41 


degrees of centralization in twenty-two states. This is the 
result to date of a movement to provide a unit of control large 
enough to afford increasing powers and duties to a county board 
of education and a county superintendent, in order that a com- 
plete educational organization for rural elementary and sec- 
ondary schools, with professional management, supervision and 
teaching staff, may be established. 

Experience indicates that consolidation of the small rural 
schools is not in and of itself a panacea for the ills of rural 
education. The truth is best stated thus: The virtues of 
consolidation are potential. It is a means to an end. The 
large item of expense for transportation of pupils must be 
justified by greatly improved educational service. ‘This can 
be done only gradually, as the movement matures under the 
most intelligent guidance by state and county superintendents 
and boards of education. In 1924, the latest year for which 
an estimate is available, there were 14,000 consolidated schools 
in the United States, employing about 150,000 teachers, and 
enrolling approximately 2,750,000 children. The consolida- 
tion movement has been retarded in the years just passed by 
the financial situation in the country generally, by cautions 
learned from experience, and by the time required to overcome 
certain feelings which were aroused by unwise propaganda. 
The tendency is to study the attitude of the people, the best 
type of district for consolidation (partly a local question), the 
safe-guarding of the unconsolidated districts remaining, and 
means of securing local, county, and state funds adequately to 
finance an efficient consolidated school. 

There is a greatly increased interest in rural secondary schools, 
resulting partly from the movement for consolidation and 
largely from the rapid advance of the necessity for such educa- 
tion to meet the complexity of present-day life and work. 
An excellent statement of commonly accepted objectives of 
rural high schools is made by Dr. Emery N. Ferris in Bulletin 
No. 10, 1925, Federal Bureau of Education, p. 71, as follows: 
1. Promotion of normal physical development. 2. Guidance 
toward a worthy life work.and selection of high-school work 


42 Hanppook oF RurRAu SociAL RESOURCES 


in harmony with choice made. 3. Vocational training for those 
not going beyond the high school. 4. The development in 
each pupil of a sense of responsibility as a member of society 
and of a democracy. 5. Training in intelligent participation 
in promoting the welfare of society (service). 6. Training in 
desirable forms of avocational and recreational pursuits. 7. The 
development of some permanent interests, appreciations, habits, 
and desires for continued growth. 8. The development of a 
rational attitude toward life’s problems. 9. Training, in so far 
as the age of secondary pupils makes desirable, to meet intel- 
ligently the responsibilities of home life and parenthood. 
10. Training in relation to all the work of the school in moral- 
ethical habits, attitudes, and ideals. 11. Preparation of those 
pupils who desire to enter higher institutions of learning. 


HIGHER INSTITUTIONS 


The provision made for the specific preparation of rural 
teachers in 120 state normal schools and teachers’ colleges has 
already been mentioned. Departments of education in many 
state universities are offering courses in rural education and 
are directing research work in this field. ‘This is an opportunity 
for definite service by these great institutions in which, in 
many cases, farmers have made a vast investment of their hard 
earned money. Returns to the farm communities have come 
in the education of the sons and daughters sent to the univer-" 
sities, in improved professional services, in stimulation of local 
schools, and in the development of a more able local leadership. 
There is a tendency at present in many universities to make 
their services to the rural population more specific and more 
penetrating. 

Present tendencies in state colleges of agriculture and applied 
science, which represent the greatest codperative national and 
state educational effort, are indicative of an even greater future 
for these institutions. In spite of the difficulty rising from the 
sectional character of agriculture and the consequent diversity of 
policy, certain trends lend themselves to fairly definite state- 


RuraL EpucaTIon 43 


ment. ‘There is a wide-spread liberalizing of the courses of 
study, with the conscious purpose that graduates of these col- 
leges shall have opportunity to acquire both general culture 
and agricultural training. Researches in economic and social 
fields are being localized for specific information and sum- 
marized in order to discover the major facts governing the 
direction and control of social progress. 

Three other tendencies are being defined. First, the tend- 
ency to make or help make definite programs of agricultural 
development. The subject of the last meeting of the Land 
Grant College Association was “The Relation of the Colleges 
to a National Policy in the Fields of Agriculture, Industries, 
and Home Making.” ‘The tendency is not only toward national, 
but also toward state, county, and even community programs. 
Related to this is the increasing interest on the part of admin- 
istrators in the problems of course of study and particularly of 
methods of teaching, and methods of training college teachers. 

Secondly, there is evidence of increasing discussion and 
action in agricultural education circles about the rural com- 
munity. More and more, programs and policies are being 
worked out in terms of the rural community. In this connec- 
tion much thought and discussion are being given to the 
relations between the town and the country, with the purpose 
of merging town and country interests on a community basis. 

Thirdly, a tendency not yet very apparent but evidently 
getting under way is that of broadening the conception of 
extension work. Agriculture and home economics are already 
covered, and industrial extension is also developing quite rapidly. 
In the near future the land grant colleges are likely to ex- 
emplify a broad view of all aspects of the problem of systematic 
education after school days are over. 

An indirect form of extension by the state colleges is wield- 
ing a wonderful influence in rural education. These colleges 
bear the brunt of the preparation of teachers for the vocational 
courses in agriculture and home economics in high schools, 
conducted under the Smith-Hughes Law. Last year there were 
18,927 of these teachers in preparation, 11,093 of whom were 


44 Hanppook oF RurAu SociaAL RESOURCES 


men and 7,834 were women. ‘This work was financed by 
$6,150,240 of federal, state, and local funds during the year 
ending in 1925, and instruction was given to a total of 659,370 
pupils, of whom 361,139 were men and 298,231 were women. 
Pupils in trade and industrial courses numbered 9,128. There 
were reported last year 115,737 pupils in state aided voca- 
tional schools in addition to schools receiving federal aid. 
These schools were organized, administered, and taught under 
the same standards as the federally aided schools. It is the 
policy in some states to use federal funds for new work only, 
and state and local funds for schools and classes that have be- 
come well established. 

The extent of non-vocational instruction in agriculture and 
home economics is only indefinitely known. This work is being 
done in thousands of small schools in both junior and senior 
high school grades. In one state for which data for this work 
is in hand there were in 1924, 47 “Rural Agricultural Schools” 
approved by the State Department of Education. ‘These schools 
employed 388 teachers and enrolled 10,732 pupils in all 
grades, of whom 5,779 were transported at an average cost per 
pupil per year of $29.81. In this same state in 1924 there 
were 1,596 boys’ and girls’ clubs with a total enrollment of 
15,826 members. In one county this work reached one out 
of every four farm boys and girls between ten and twenty 
years of age. 


GOVERNMENT AGENCIES 


Federal aid for research and instruction in agricultural, domes- 
tic and industrial subjects gives the national government a 
means of direct codperation with states in public school and 
college programs of work. ‘There is also through the exten- 
sion work provided in accordance with the Smith-Lever Law a 
mutual approach by the nation and the states to the problems 
of out-of-school, continuing education. The development of 
this work makes the entire state the campus of the colleges 
of agriculture and applied sciences. ‘This expansion is thought 
to be one of the chief reasons for the decrease of 14 per cent 


RuraL EpUCATION 45 


in the enrollments in short courses given at the colleges in 
recent years. ‘There has also been a decrease of 3 per cent in 
the number of resident courses in agriculture in these colleges, 
though their total enrollment has increased 112 per cent in 
the past ten years. "These facts also reflect the economic de- 
pression which agriculture has experienced. In 1923 the num- 
ber of counties having extension agents was 2,097, the per- 
sonnel employed totaled over 3,600 and the amount expended 
for this work was almost $19,000,000. 

The United States Department of the Interior published 
recently an illustrated poster under the titlke—“‘A Federal Uni- 
versity for the People.” In this “university” ten departments 
were mentioned: (1) Education, (2) Engineering, (3) Geology, 
(4) Botany, (5) Zoology, (6) Chemistry, (7) Anthropology, 
(8) Geography, (9) Psychology, and (10) Research. This is 
offered as an illustration which suggests the elaborate efforts 
‘ of both national and state governments for the increase and 
diffusion of knowledge among American citizens. 


VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATIONS 


International, national, state, and local voluntary organiza- 
tions such as follow are really educational agencies whose 
cumulative results are tremendous: The World Agriculture 
Society, The American Country Life Association, The National 
and State Granges, The National and State Farm Bureau Fed- 
erations, National and State Education Associations, The 
American Association for the Advancement of Science, The 
National and local Chambers of Commerce, The American 
Sociological Society, National and State Bankers Associations, 
as well as thousands of county, and more local, literary and 
codperative organizations. Taken together these afford the 
services of a great national forum in which, among other prob- 
lems, the questions of rural welfare and progress challenge 
constructive thinking by the best minds of the nation. 

In the program of the 1925 meeting of the American 
Sociological Society there was a well attended rural section 


46 Hanppook oF RuRAL SociAL REsouRCES 


which presented three programs containing the following sub- 
jects: “The Teaching of Rural Sociology,” ‘Extension Work 
in Rural Sociology,” ‘The Basis of Procedure in Rural Social 
Work,” “Research in Rural Social Control,” and “A Research 
Program in Rural Sociology.” ‘These topics indicate the present 
tendencies in the study of rural society. ‘The rapidity with 
which research and instruction in this phase of rural education 
is advancing is shown by a directory of persons giving courses 
in rural sociology and rural life in the United States issued 
by the U. S. Department of Agriculture under date of October 
1, 1925. This directory carried the names of 556 teachers. 

The daily educational nourishment of routine rural life 
should eventually be enriched by incorporating in it the prac- 
tical results, in so far as there are such results, from the in- 
creasing volume of researches into the intimate facts of daily 
rural living, with their more or less matured constructive sug- 
gestions. ‘The original Country Life Commission reported a 
strong conviction that the forces that make for rural betterment 
must themselves be rural. A rural leadership which remains 
rural in associations, appreciations and participating friendships, 
in spite of the widespread tendency among rural leaders to 
withdraw to a comfortable distance from actual rural conditions 
and needs, is the paramount demand in rural social education. 
Real rural leaders must have no inferiority complex and must 
be immune to what Dr. T. N. Carver calls “the assumption of 
urban superiority.” 


RESEARCH AND PUBLICITY 


Research and publicity are the chief means of keeping educa- 
tional effort both dynamic and sane. One of the most gratify- 
ing present tendencies in rural education is to invoke both 
of these agencies. The National Society for the Study of 
Education has under consideration now the project of a year 
book for publication possibly in 1928 in which several impor- 
tant problems of rural education may be presented after a most 
thoroughgoing analysis, research, and synthesis by the most 
competent men and women who are available for such work. 


RuraL EpucATION 47 


The Agricultural Bureau of the Chamber of Commerce of the 
United States has recently published a thorough study of the 
services of the land grant colleges through the enrollment of 
students in their courses in agriculture. In graduate schools 
of education doctors’ dissertations are constantly being written 
upon problems in rural education. Among the subjects studied 
are: attendance, supervision, types of organization, financial re- 
sources, methods of distribution of public aid, pupil capacity 
and achievement, preparation of teachers, vocational education, 
and courses of study. The research idea is also bearing fruit 
in a wide range of county studies and even more local studies 
touching the whole range of needs. State researches of excel- 
lent quality have recently been completed in New York and 
Texas. 

Publicity has in recent years taken the form of professional, 
semi-professional, and information books, magazines, journals, 
and other forms of weekly and monthly publications. The 
Journal of Rural Education, the official monthly of the De- 
partment of Rural Education of the National Education Asso- 
ciation, now in its fifth year, and Rural America, the monthly 
organ of the American Country Life Association, now in its 
third year, are the best illustrations of the newer types of 
publicity in rural education. 


MA = 
RURAL SOCIAL WORK 


Leroy A. RAMSDELL 
The New York School of Social Work 


Social work, in one form or another, and by other names, 
has been known to dwellers in the open country and in small 
towns and villages for a long time. ‘The idea of communal 
responsibility for the unfortunate members of the community 
is nearly as old, in most parts of our country, as our civiliza- 
tion itself. It may well be doubted whether there ever was 
an American community in which there was not one person 
with enough of the feeling of human brotherhood to be con- 
cerned to help or to save the sick, the bereaved, the poor or 
the wicked. From such ideas and feelings as these, professional 
social work has developed; and from similar ideas and feelings, 
crystallized into customary modes of behavior, it develops in 
any particular community. 


I. WHAT IS SOCIAL WORK?! 


Social work is a modern name for modern, more or less 
scientific methods of achieving the purposes of these time- 
honored ideas and feelings—the care, and where possible the 
rehabilitation, of the unfortunate or incompetent members of 
society. The field to which these methods are applicable in- 
cludes, in rural America, the work of the town or county 
overseer of the poor, the charitable work of the churches, much 
of the various other social activities which country churches 
are beginning to develop; that part of the work of the county 
judge which has to do with such things as the commitment of 


48 


Rurau SocraL Worx 49 


people to state institutions, the appointment of guardians for 
orphaned children and incompetent adults, etc.; and the private 
efforts of citizens acting individually and in groups for the 
purpose of caring for the sick, the poor, the aged and infirm, 
and other unfortunates who are considered worthy of help. 
It includes also some things which are not so often done by 
anybody in our rural communities, such as guiding the way- 
ward boy or girl who has not yet done anything wrong but 
who may do so unless helped by somebody to find a better way 
of life; improving the environment which the community pro- 
vides for growing boys and girls; and protecting children from 
negligent or abusive parents. “Ihe Committee on Rural Social 
Work of the American Country Life Association has suggested 
the following list of social problems as roughly defining the 
appropriate field of activity of a county social work agency: 


(a) Broken or incapable families requiring aid. 

(b) Abused, neglected, dependent, delinquent, and otherwise 
handicapped children, requiring care or protection by 
others than their parents. 

(c) Care of the aged dependent. 

(d) Care of feeble-minded and mentally diseased persons. 

(e) Prevention of juvenile delinquency and crime. 

(f) School attendance and child labor. 

(g) Housing conditions. 

(h) Community organization for any social welfare movement.’ 


In short, social work is “the art of helping people out of 
trouble,” * and of helping people to keep out of trouble. 
Although much activity in the field of social work is found, 
and has always been found, in the rural communities of the 
United States, social work as a scientific method of dealing 
with the various kinds of trouble which people get into has 
developed almost exclusively in the larger cities. How much 
of this method or technique rural people can profitably make 
use of in their own communities is a question which ought to 
be faced frankly and answered honestly. Out of the experience 
of the larger cities, experts or specialists in various types of 
1 Report of Committee on Rural Social Work, in Proceedings of the 


Seventh National Country Life Conference, p. 171. 
2Cf. The Art of Helping People Out of Trouble, by Karl De Schweinetz. 


50 Hanpspook oF RurRAu SoctaL RESOURCES 


social work have been developed. ‘These specialists are gradu- 
ally producing a literature of social work and a body of 
scientific methods for dealing with these problems. They have 
organized more than a score of schools for training social 
workers. ‘These experts with their schools, their literature, 
and their scientific methods, constitute a constantly growing 
professional resource which rural people ought to be able to 
use to advantage.® 


II, THE AVAILABILITY OF SOCIAL WORK TO RURAL COMMUNITIES 


Within the last twenty or thirty years, considerable progress 
has been made in establishing channels through which the re- 
sources of social work may be placed at the service of rural 
communities. Before 1910 some of the leaders in social work 
began to realize that there was need for their service outside 
the large urban centers. In 1908, for instance, the State 
Charities Aid Association of New York, instituted its far- 
sighted policy of organizing county agencies which employ 
trained social workers for the care of dependent children. 
Isolated experiments on a county-wide basis had been made by 
the same agency as early as 1901. The general movement was 
greatly stimulated during the war period by the discovery of 
unexpectedly high percentages of mental and physical de- 
ficiencies among rural draftees, and by the tremendous expan- 
sion of various organizations like the Red Cross. Although it 
was impossible after the war enthusiasm subsided for the social 
agencies to hold all the territory they had occupied, the net 
result was to establish social work in many rural districts where 
it had not before been available, and to arouse social agencies 
to a permanent interest in the social problems of rural com- 
munities. 

Occupation of the Rural Territory by National Agencies. In 
another part of this volume will be found a list of the national 

* For a brief outline of the present status and activity of social work the 
reader is referred to The Profession of Social Work, a pamphlet published 
by the American Association of Social Work; and for a more complete 
description of the field and methods, to the following books: What Is Social 


Work? L, A. Halbert; Education and Training for Social Work, James H. 
Tufts; and Social Work, Edward T. Devine. 


RurRaAL SocraL Work 51 


agencies engaged in rural social work, and a description of the 
services which each of these agencies is prepared to render. 
Some of these agencies, it will readily be seen, are not doing 
social work as it has been defined in this article. Others, al- 
though doing social work within this definition, have not 
established local units or placed social workers in local rural 
districts. Probably a list of the county secretaries or executives 
of the Y. M. C. A., the Y. W. C. A., the Red Cross, the 
National Tuberculosis Assn., and the Boy Scouts would repre- 
sent a large part of the social workers established in local rural 
districts by national agencies. 

There are 124 full time county Y. M. C. A. secretaries 
working in rural districts. The Y. W. C. A. has 39 county or 
district secretaries in rural territory. The Red Cross has 
approximately 400 secretaries in predominantly rural counties. 
The Boy Scouts have approximately 225 county or district ex- 
ecutives. ‘There are about 90 secretaries employed by county 
committees of the state tuberculosis associations. On the basis 
of these figures, the total number of county secretaries main- 
tained by national social agencies may be roughly estimated 
at 1500. 

Unfortunately, the above estimate cannot be taken to mean 
that the resources of social work are fully available to the rural 
communities in half of the 3000 counties of the United States, 
for there are many counties in which more than one of these 
agencies has a secretary. It would almost certainly be safe 
to assume that duplications would reduce the total number of 
counties served to not more than a thousand. Nor is this the 
only discount that must be made. Dr. H. Paul Douglass, in a 
study of the services of five national agencies to country boys 
and girls, has presented evidence showing that even within 
the territory covered the rural population is only partially 
served. ‘The service tends to center in the villages and towns 
and does not reach the greater part of the open country popula- 
tion. ‘The writer’s own observations in several counties indi- 


4H. Paul Douglass, How Shall Country Youth Be Served? New York: 
George H. Doran Company, 1925. 


52 Hanpsook oF RuRAL SoctaAL REsoURCES 


cate that this tendency is not peculiar to agencies serving boys 
and girls. Finally, allowance must be made for the fact that 
many of these county secretaries are not adequately equipped 
to represent the social work profession. ‘The success of the 
national agencies in securing support from the public has been 
due, in part at least, to the comparative simplicity and definite- 
ness of their programs. As a natural consequence, ability to 
administer the particular program of the agency has been an 
indispensable qualification for local and field agents, while 
training in social work, though desirable, has not been deemed 
equally important. ‘The efforts of national agencies to extend 
the resources of social work to the rural field have provided 
rural society with many specialists trained to administer certain 
programs, but the broad knowledge and skill required to deal 
with the social problems of the rural community have been 
provided only incidentally and much less extensively. 

State and Local Agencies. It would be a very difficult task 
to determine how much has been achieved in the development 
of rural social work by purely local agencies. Here and there, 
one would probably find many enterprises of the general char- 
acter of the Monmouth County League for Social Service, in 
New Jersey, which has been described in a publication of the 
Children’s Bureau.” Such purely local experiments are valuable 
as demonstrations of what local groups can do under favorable 
circumstances, but it is not apparent that their contribution to 
the extension of social work into rural territory has, so far, 
been large in the aggregate. On the whole, such local effort 
as has been manifest in this field has been largely stimulated 
and directed by state and national agencies. 

Any consideration of the efforts of state agencies, must take 
some notice of the great diversity of approach to the problem 
in different states. In some states, for example, there has been 
little effort to encourage the employment locally of trained 
social workers. This has been especially true, perhaps, in 
New England where there are more difficulties than elsewhere 


5 County idenenaticys for Child Care and Protection, Children’s Bureau 
Bulletin No, 107. 


Rurau SoctaL Work 53 


in organizing the county as an administrative unit for social 
work. In some of these states, Massachusetts and Connecticut 
especially, a great deal of excellent rural social work is being 
done by centralized state organizations. But the feeling is 
growing, in Connecticut at any rate, that the needs of the rural 
communities of the state cannot be adequately met on this 
basis. On the other hand, in those states where definite effort 
has been made to encourage local organization in the admin- 
istration of social work, two very different methods of attack 
will be found which may be designated the legislative approach 
and the educational approach. North Carolina, Missouri, and 
Minnesota may be cited as outstanding examples of the first 
type—states in which comprehensive laws have been passed 
setting up county boards of public welfare or child welfare, 
some of which employ trained social workers, ‘The educational 
approach is well illustrated by New York, California, Lowa, 
Florida, and Georgia, although these are by no means the only 
states in which effort of this kind is being exerted. In these 
states the method is to bring leaders in the various counties to 
understand their local social problems and to appreciate the need 
for expert service. By this method one county after another 
is brought to the point of supporting one or more trained 
social workers, sometimes under public, sometimes under private 
auspices, and also under a combination of both.® 

Considerable variety is found, too, in the character of the 
agencies which in the different states are leading the move- 
ment for the development of rural social work. In North 
Carolina, Missouri, and Minnesota the law places the primary 
responsibility upon state boards. In New York the movement 
has been led by the State Charities Aid Association, in Iowa by 
social workers on the staff of the extension division of the state 
university, in Florida by a few energetic leaders including a 
Red Cross field secretary, in Georgia by the State Council of 
Social Agencies and the State Department of Public Welfare, 

®For a full description of the organization for county social work in 
Minnesota, North Carolina, California, New Jersey, and New York, see 


Children’s Bureau Bulletin No. 107, Country Organization for Child Care 
and Protection, 


54 Hanppook oF Rurat SoctAL RESOURCES 


and so on. In several states the state conference of social work 
has played an important role in the movement. 

The net result of all these efforts in terms of trained social 
workers employed in rural counties is hard to estimate. ‘Thirty- 
five counties in New York, 25 counties in Florida, and 14 
counties in Iowa, it is reported to the writer, have employed 
one or more trained social workers. On the basis of such 
inadequate sources of information as personal contacts with indi- 
vidual social workers from various states and membership lists 
of the National Conference of Social Work, the number of 
county social workers now serving in rural territory as a result 
of the efforts of purely state agencies may be estimated at 500, 
with considerable confidence that any accurate study which may 
be made in the near future will establish the number well within 
this limit. 

Summary of Part II, Combining the estimates of the two 
preceding sections gives an estimate of 2,000 county social 
workers of one kind or another for the rural territory—roughly, 
1,200 case workers, 500 recreation and group workers, and 
300 specialists of other kinds. ‘These two thousand workers 
are assumed, in the premise, to have sufficient training or ex- 
perience to have been approved for appointment by some national 
or state agency. Many of them, however, are extremely 
specialized in their equipment, and many more have only a 
minimum of training or experience. On the whole it seems 
safe to say that probably not more than a quarter of them are 
adequately equipped to deal in a broadly constructive and 
scientific way with the social problems of the communities which 
they serve. 


III EMERGING PROBLEMS 


The Problem of Duplication. It has already been suggested 
that the available supply of rural social workers working under 
the auspices of national agencies is not uniformly distributed 
over the occupied rural territory. In some counties representa- 
tives of several of the national agencies will be found, and, on 
the other hand, there may be some counties in which there are 


Rurat Socia, Worx 55 


no national agencies represented at all. The same condition is 
true in only slightly less degree of the service of state agencies. 
The problem is serious from several points of view. In the 
first place, as long as the resources of the agencies are inadequate 
to completely occupy the rural territory, the multiplication of 
agencies in one county means deprivation of other counties. 
Secondly, the multiplication of agencies in one county means 
competition for financial support and for the time and energy 
of local leaders in that county, and these resources are limited 
in most rural counties. In the third place, this method of pro- 
motion results in a fragmentary treatment of the social problems 
of rural communities. No local agency is established whose 
function is to study the social problems of the county as a 
whole and to work out a long time program of improvement 
adapted to that particular local situation. 

The problem will not be easy to solve. For one thing definite 
programs, especially when they can be epitomized in a symbol 
or charged with an emotional appeal, evoke a more ready re- 
sponse from the layman than general discussions of social 
problems. Also, some of the national agencies, and state agencies, 
too, have already been established long enough in some sections 
so that definite bonds have been established in certain local 
groups which will not be easily broken. Nevertheless, some 
solution must be found, if not for the territory already occupied, 
then at least for purposes of extension. 

A most hopeful indication is the recognition of the impor- 
tance of the problem which is being manifested by the agencies 
themselves. Within the last five years, four national councils 
of social agencies have been organized for the purpose of 
solving just such problems as this. A study of the interrelation- 
ships of national agencies made by the National Information 
Bureau in 1922 for a Conference of National Social Agencies, 
has done much to stimulate the general movement toward 
codrdination.’ From the rural viewpoint, the most important 

TReport of a Study of the Interrelation of the Work of National Social 
Agencies, in Fourteen American Communities, Porter R. Lee, Walter W. 


Pettit and Jane M. Hoey, The National Information Bureau, New York, 
1922. 


56 Hanppook oF Rurat SociAL REsouRCES 


of all these projects is the National Council of Agencies En- 
gaged in Rural Social Work. It is regrettable that funds have 
not been forthcoming to establish this Council as a functioning 
group with a full time staff as the other national councils have 
been established. In spite of this handicap, however, the 
Council has already done much to bring about a unification of 
ideas and plans among the rural departments of the agencies 
represented. 

Various scattering experiments in combining the programs 
of two or more national agencies in a single county organization 
may be found. Most of these combinations, doubtless, are the 
result of local demand, but in one case, at least—the Y. M. C. A. 
and the Y. W. C. A.—the national officers are experimenting 
definitely with a policy of this sort. The social workers’ group 
at the Columbus Conference of the American Country Life 
Association in 1924 made a strong appeal for more efforts along 
this line. 

Within the last eight years state councils of social agencies 
have been organized in several states. Not all of them have 
functioned successfully, however, and one has recently dis- 
banded. ‘The chief difficulty of state councils seems to be that 
of finding adequate sources of financial support. Only the 
Georgia council has employed a secretary. It would seem to be 
worth while for some agency interested in rural social work 
to make a careful study of the problems of state councils of 
social agencies to determine what can be done to facilitate their 
development on a functioning basis. 

County councils of social agencies have appeared here and 
there, but the outstanding achievements in this field are not, 
strictly speaking, councils of social agencies. The county fed- 
erations for social work in Florida, for instance, act not only 
as councils of the agencies participating but also as adminis- 
trative agencies employing and directing the social work staff 
for the county.* The same thing is true of the County Social 


8 Cf. Lucy Chamberlain Ryan, ‘Behind the Boom in Florida,” in Survey 
Graphic, Feb. 1, 1926. 


Rurat SocraL Work 57 


Service Leagues in Iowa.2 The county conferences organized 
by the State Conference of Social Work in Wisconsin, on the 
other hand, seem to be much more inclusive in interest and 
personnel than would be expected in a council of social agencies, 
and the same may be said of the county councils organized by 
the Codperative Education Association of Virginia. 

The Problem of Support. Support includes more than the 
giving of money. It includes service on boards of directors 
and committees and volunteer work. It includes also, in a sense, 
using the services of an agency, joining its activities or coming 
to it for help. The problem of support for social work in 
rural districts is only partially produced by the inadequacy of 
economic resources. For the rest it consists in a difference of 
opinion between social workers and rural people as to what 
kind of expert service, and how much of it, is needed in any 
particular local district. 

“We don’t need a social worker; we haven’t any poor in this 
county,” is a statement that is made over and over again by 
rural people—even in counties which are spending thousands 
of dollars a year in various forms of poor relief. Scarcely less 
prevalent is the opinion that the local community can deal with 
its social problems quite effectively enough in its own way. 
A general attitude of fatalism toward social problems—a feeling 
that they must be left to work themselves out—often con- 
tributes, along with these two definite opinions, to an antagonis- 
tic reaction on the part of rural people to the overtures of 
social work. On the other hand, social workers often hold 
rural institutions and rural ways in contempt. ‘They are con- 
cerned over the dangers of a too careless giving of relief and 
undiscriminating neighborly help. ‘They see the failures of 
rural agencies, and become enthusiastic for a radical change 
which will substitute approved social work methods for the 
rural ways of dealing with these problems. The problem of 
support is in no small degree a problem of reconciling these 
two points of view. 


® Cf. The Iowa Plan for Organization of a Cea tie Social Service League, 
University of Iowa Extension Bulletin, No. 100. 


58 Hanpspook oF RurRaAt SocitaAL REsoURCES 


The present status of this problem is that the social agencies 
have become established, for the most part, only in those places 
where support has been most readily forthcoming, resulting 
in the duplication of agencies in some counties and the neglect 
of other counties, and in the concentration upon villages and 
towns and the neglect of open country areas within counties 
which have already been noted. There seems to be little doubt 
that some combination of rural and urban territory must be 
made for purposes of supporting social work. Dr. Jesse Steiner 
has suggested *° that such a combination seems to be the only 
way of securing adequate financial support, but he insists that 
the enterprise must be so organized that genuine participation 
by rural groups is secured. ‘This last stipulation is precisely 
what social agencies have been least successful in accomplishing. 

As a way out of this difficulty, it has been suggested by some 
that rural social work should be developed under the auspices 
of and as a by-product of the economic organizations of farmers. 
Two of the farmers’ codperative marketing associations—the 
Burley tobacco association in Kentucky and the tobacco associa- 
tion in Virginia and North Carolina—have actually employed 
social workers. Judging by the study made by Landis,** how- 
ever, the outlook is not hopeful for an extensive development 
of rural social work by this method. From the viewpoint of 
the social agencies, it fails to reach the root of the problem, 
which is the development in rural people of a different set of 
attitudes toward social work. 

Among the experiments and efforts which seem most promis- 
ing in this connection are the district and county conferences 
which are being developed in several states, the community 
scoring movement which has been given special attention in 
West Virginia and Wisconsin, the “‘institute courses” for various 
county officials and volunteers which are being organized by 
several state conferences of social work, and the efforts of social 
work leaders to draw rural leaders into discussions of rural 

10 Jesse L. Steiner, Bases of Procedure in Rural Social Work, paper read 
at a meeting of the American Sociological Society, December, 1925. 


4B. Y, Landis, Social Aspects of Farmers’ Codperative Marketing, Chi- 
¢eago: University of Chicago Press, 1925. 


Rura. Soca Work 59 


social problems at state and national conferences. But more 
important, perhaps, than any of these is the slow, persistent 
educational effort which is being exerted by certain agencies. 
The county organization work of the State Charities Aid Asso- 
ciation in New York because of its early beginnings and 
comparatively long history of progress is possibly an outstanding 
example of this type of effort, but this agency is by no means 
alone in this field. More recently a number of state depart- 
ments of public welfare have taken a hopeful step in adding to 
their staffs county organizers whose function seems to be con- 
ceived in terms of gradually developing the present charitable 
and correctional work of the counties in their respective states 
into something better. Anything which promotes a better under- 
standing between social workers and rural people is a step 
toward the solution of the problem of support. 

Summary of Part III, Rural social work is a battlefield of 
ideas and sentiments. Social work leaders themselves hold 
widely different theories as to the objectives which should be 
set up and as to the best methods of reaching the objectives. 
Social workers are divided into legions each following its own 
banner, and conflicts between these groups, if not the rule, are 
at least very common. Social agencies, for the most part, do 
not think of establishing rural social work except at the level 
of urban standards. ‘They are imbued with the expert’s in- 
tolerance. Rural people, on the other hand, are almost deter- 
mined to have nothing to do with these new fangled city 
notions. Social work, along with most of the other expert 
services, is being drawn into the rising urban-rural conflict, 
instead of being, as it should, the adjusting agency which 
integrates the conflict. Rural social work is chaotic and the 
order which is to come out of it is, as yet, scarcely discernible. 


Wat 


THE RURAL WORK OF THE CATHOLIC 
CHURCH 


E. V. O’HARA 
Director, Rural Life Bureau, National Catholic Welfare Conference 


Owing to the comparatively small number of Catholic clergy 
in the United States during the first half of the nineteenth cen- 
tury, the general policy of the bishops and priests was to 
encourage Catholics to remain in the larger centers where their 
spiritual needs could be more readily cared for. ‘This policy, 
of course, was not, generally, consciously formulated nor always 
successful. ‘The Catholic pioneer immigrants made their way 
westward and settled either far from their co-religionists, or 
took up land in close proximity to each other. In the former 
case they were generally lost to the Church; in the latter, a 
priest was soon supplied and a nucleus of parish life formed. 


EARLY DEVELOPMENTS 


In the second half of the century, groups of Catholic immi- 
grants from Europe, made their way into the Ohio and Missis- 
sippi valleys accompanied by clergy from their native countries. 
In certain cases bishops, secular clergy and religious orders 
established farm colonies, Such, to mention a single instance, 
was the Irish settlement in Minnesota promoted by Archbishop 
Ireland of St. Paul. 

Dioceses were soon established in the more important centers 
of the country and it naturally became the duty of the bishops 
to provide priests for the remote groups of faithful. With the 
increase of population, these ecclesiastical divisions were multi- 

60 


Tue RuraL Work oF THE CaTHOLIC CHURCH 61 


plied until now there are in the United States about 110 arch- 
dioceses and dioceses with an archbishop or bishop at the head 
of each. The diocese is the effective administrative organiza- 
tion of the Church, and the bishop its administrative head. 
Each diocese is divided into parishes in charge of a pastor 
appointed by the bishop. From this explanation it will be seen 
that the local administration of rural activities is entirely in the 
hands of the local pastor and his superior, the bishop, and that 
no local work is undertaken by the Rural Life Bureau in the 
Social Action Department of the National Catholic Welfare 
Conference. 

The rapid growth of the Church in the large cities has 
naturally demanded the immediate attention of the bishops. 
This is to be expected with the administrative problems which 
arose from the establishment of schools, hospitals and charitable 
institutions to serve the city population. But the solicitude of 
the bishops extended to the remotest parishes of their dioceses 
and certain general lines of rural policy emerged. 

Such a general policy was involved in the appointment of 
rural pastors. Most generally, newly ordained priests were sent 
to city parishes as assistants for a shorter or longer period. They 
were then promoted to a pastorate in a rural parish where, after 
a period of years of successful administration, they might be 
transferred to the charge of a city parish. Promotions were 
thus cityward. Naturally, the demand for hospitals was first 
felt in the larger centers, and religious communities responded 
to the demand by establishing city hospitals. Under the direc- 
tion of the bishops, religious communities were encouraged to 
establish hospitals in smaller centers and today a large number 
of hospitals under Catholic auspices in smaller towns and cities 
serve considerable rural population. 

Likewise, the larger parishes naturally lead the way in estab- 
lishing parish schools, but the rural parishes as soon as they 
had sufficient numbers, followed the example. ‘The extent to 
which parish schools were established differs in different sec- 
tions, but where country parishes are backward in establishing 
parish schools, it will be generally found that city parishes in 


62 Hanppook oF RurRAL SoctAL RESOURCES 


the same sections are likewise backward. ‘The parish school 
became a social agency of the first importance, integrating re- 
ligion with education, and both with the social life and 
vocational preparation of the young folks. 


RURAL CATHOLIC EDUCATION 


The extent of rural activity in the different ecclesiastical 
provinces (or groups of dioceses) in the United States, may be 
seen from the sub-joined table compiled from the Official 
Catholic Directory which shows the percentage of parish school 
children in the various provinces who are attending the rural 
parish schools. 


RuRAL CATHOLIC SCHOOL ATTENDANCE 


PERCENTAGE OF CHILDREN 


PROVINCE IN RURAL SCHOOLS 
Balnmore seas itg ae cae 8.1 
Boston Worse tees iecee ewes: 2.6 
Chicawo Muy ares ale weet is 7.8 
Cincinnat | i. Zee leak ees 1133 
Diabuauenccs, . asieicterae wate cen 46.6 
Milwaukee! (ues sinceccaeeme ts 23-1 
Ney (Orleans: Goa! epee eas 30.4 
NeW a VOrk at wIdt ies belek ode oi | 
Oregon’ Cityiuicsw je dcenies ete 13.4 
Philadelphia ie tains wet non art a By, 
SELES Fay a Lee oe a8 25.5 
StisPal todd eeadenuta karte. 35.7 
San Francisca ss boss a icin ee 4.6 
Panta Teck Vera wb a Eales 17.7 


Most of the Catholic churches serving rural populations are 
located in villages or small towns, although there are certain 
sections where one may find numerous parish plants consisting 
of church, school and rectory, situated in the open country. 
The general tendency, however, has been toward building the 
Church in the trading center of the community. 


POLICIES 


In general, it may be said that the policy of the Catholic 
Church has been toward long pastorates. It is common for a 


THe RuraL WorkK OF THE CaTHOLIC CHURCH 63 


priest to remain more than a quarter of a century as pastor of 
the same parish. The effect of this stability of tenure has been 
to enable him to enter into the lives of his people to a re- 
markable extent. 

The Catholic rural parish has commonly entered into the 
recreational life of its young people. Ball games after services 
on Sunday have been common traditions during the summer in 
many sections. The parish societies have exercised a supervision 
over the dances and other forms of social amusement of the 
young folks, 

There has, however, been another side to the effect of the 
Catholic school on the rural population. Very many small rural 
parishes were unable to establish parish schools, with the result 
that the strong Catholic schools in the cities, became a magnet 
to attract Catholic families to the city. Thus, the cityward 
tendency of the rural population often became accentuated by 
the city parish schools. 


THE PROGRAM OF THE NATIONAL CATHOLIC WELFARE 
CONFERENCE 


The rural program of the Catholic Church in America is 
outlined by the Rural Life Bureau in the Social Action Depart- 
ment of the National Catholic Welfare Conference. Right 
Reverend Peter J. Muldoon, D.D., Bishop of Rockford, Illinois, 
is chairman of the Social Action Department, and Reverend 
Edwin V. O’Hara, Eugene, Oregon, is Director of the Rural 
Life Bureau. The primary object of the Bureau is to be of 
service to rural parishes and other organizations which deal with 
the rural problem. Since the development of the rural parish 
is conditioned by whatever affects rural life, the Bureau is con- 
cerned with the entire range of rural problems and undertakes 
to show how the parish and similar organizations may take part 
in the solution of these problems. 

1. Economic. ‘The program includes the promotion of a 
Christian view of land tenure, of wide diffusion .of land own- 
ership and of easy access to the land by bona fide operators 


64 HanpsBook oF Rurat SociaAL REsouRCEs 


and assistance to the codperative movement, with safeguards 
against its becoming merely capitalistic, which is the case when 
codperation leads farmers to produce only for the market and 
not primarily for the family. The program has in view the 
development of the self-sufficient community eliminating the 
economic waste of unnecessary transportation. Other interests 
are the promotion of business administration among farmers, and 
the use of the facilities provided by the agriculture colleges. 

2. The Farm Home—rThe program recognizes the farm as 
the native habitat of the family, the place where economic forces 
work for the unity of the family; where the children are an 
economic asset; and where the children receive an apprentice- 
ship in an important profession. It urges the avoidance of un- 
suitable work for women and children; the extension of home 
conveniences by proper home architecture, the introduction of 
light, power and water in the rural home, and the electrification 
of the rural community. 

3. Health—The Church has always maintained an interest 
in hospital service, and in the medical and nursing professions. 
The rural program calls for the extension of these services to 
the rural country communities, codperation with all the forces 
which can supply the services to the rural communities, and 
the establishment of health clinics in connection with rural 
schools and religious vacation schools. 

4. Social—The program recognizes the value of the co- 
operative movement in binding communities and neighborhoods 
together, enabling them to promote their social life more easily. 
It aims at unifying the social life of the community through 
the parish school and the parish hall, reinforcing the social bond 
with the religious bond. It suggests the employment of dra- 
matics and the promotion and supervision of the social life of 
the young people by the Church, rather than an attempt to sup- 
press the social life, or to ignore it. 

5. Culture and Education—Rural culture is necessary to 
make country life permanently satisfying—financial success is 
not sufficient. The integration of education and religion is a 
fundamental necessity, since a high grade rural clergy cannot 


Tue RuraL Work oF THE CaTHOLIC CHURCH 65 


be maintained if the clergy is cut off from access to the educa- 
tional life of the rural community. Religion, with its teaching, 
its worship, and its aesthetic appeal, provides the most important 
element of culture. The rural secondary school should interpret 
the rural life to its pupils, and not be patterned after the city 
school. 

6. Religion and Worship—The rural life program recog- 
nizes that a parish school is by far the most effective agency for 
promoting religion. Where, owing to fewness of members, a 
parish school is impracticable, the Rural Life Bureau advocates 
the multiplication of religious vacation schools and of religious 
correspondence education. Both of these means are now em- 
ployed by a growing number of rural parishes. 

The two general agencies for the promotion of the Catholic 
rural life program are the monthly publication, Catholic Rural 
Life, which circulates among the rural pastors and their people, 
and the Catholic Rural Life Conference which holds a national 
convention annually. The office of the Catholic Rural Life 
Bureau is at 1062 Charnelton St., Eugene, Oregon. 


vel 


THE SITUATION AMONG PROTESTANT 
RURAL CHURCHES 


RALPH S. ADAMS 


The Commission on Social Service and Rural Work, Reformed 
Church in the United States 


If rural church statistics only should be reviewed in this paper 
the situation would appear somewhat disheartening, because the 
statistical measurements which are usually applied to churches 
would show our country churches to be in a rather bad way. 
On the other hand, if consideration is given to the recent re- 
awakening in the country. church throughout America, a more 
encouraging situation is presented. 

Although the scope of this topic is very extensive and the space 
for developing it somewhat limited, yet in fairness to the coun- 
try church an attempt will be made to set forth the rural church 
situation in the two aspects above indicated. 


STATISTICS OF RURAL CHURCHES 


Some statistics of town and country churches, drawn from The 
Town and Country Church in the United States by Morse and 
Brunner (Doran, 1923), are as follows: 

(a) ‘There are approximately 101,477 rural churches in the 
United States (towns with population under 5,000 considered 
rural). Ninety-four per cent of the rural churches were in open 
country and villages with less than 2,500 population. One- 
seventh of rural communities were without any church. Forty- 
two per cent of rural communities were without a resident pastor. 
Many other rural communities were overchurched. Denomi- 

66 


Tue SrruaTion AMonc ProTEsTANT RURAL CHURCHES 67 


national mission boards were supporting many competitive rural 
churches. 

(5) Growth and Decline of Rural Churches—Of 5,552 
representative rural churches throughout the United States, two- 
fifths were not growing; two-thirds with less than 50 members 
were not growing. Of one denomination: eighty-five per cent of 
churches served by pastor with more than 4 churches were not 
growing; forty-eight per cent of churches with absentee pastor 
were not growing. 

(c) Membership. Sixteen per cent of the rural population 
were members of Protestant churches; sixty-three members were 
in the average enrolment; forty-six members were the average 
enrolment in the open country; twenty-eight per cent of the 
listed members were reported inactive. 

(2) Rural Pastors—Thirty per cent of rural churches had 
resident pastors, not sharing services with any other church; fifty 
per cent of these were engaged in another occupation; sixteen 
per cent of the open-country churches had a resident pastor; 
thirteen per cent of all churches were without a pastor; 34,181 
additional rural pastors were needed to give each rural commu- 
nity a resident pastor; $1,400 was the average salary of the rural 
pastor, this figure including $250, estimated as the annual rental 
value of a parsonage. Fifty-five per cent of the pastors were 
provided with a parsonage. 

(e) Sunday Schools—Twenty-five per cent of rural churches 
had no Sunday School. ‘The average Sunday School member- 
ship was 86. ‘The average Sunday School membership in open 
country was 64. 

From these figures it will be seen that rural communities are 
generally overchurched, although 12 per cent of the commu- 
nities are without any Protestant church; that competition is 
aggravated and continued by mission grants; that nearly half 
the communities are without a resident spiritual adviser; that 
nearly half the rural churches are losing in membership or just 
holding their own; that the small church is threatened with ex- 
tinction; that the church served by a non-resident pastor is on 
the decline; that the average membership is very small (84 per 


68 Hanpspook oF RurRau SociaL REsoURCES 


cent of the rural population is not connected with the church) ; 
that rural pastors are overworked and underpaid; and that many 
churches are giving practically no religious instruction to their 
children. 

But a more encouraging aspect will appear when we consider 
the situation from the viewpoint of the recent awakening in 
the country church and the movements now in operation to 
change these conditions. 


THE WORK OF CHURCH ORGANIZATIONS 


Ever since Roosevelt’s Country Life Commission made its re- 
port the rural church movement has developed from different 
sources and in varying ways. No attempt will be made to fol- 
low this movement chronologically since the different phases of 
activity had begun in small ways before we had any specific con- 
sciousness of their national significance. ‘This fact makes it im- 
possible to report the movement chronologically, although spe- 
cific dates might be assigned to certain developments. 

(2) Rural Church Departments—The Presbyterian Church 
in the U. S. A. was the first denomination to see the need of a 
separate department to care for the peculiar requirements of its 
country churches. It organized a department about 1909 and 
called to its leadership that great pioneer, Dr. Warren H. Wil- 
son. ‘The labors of Dr. Wilson and his co-workers soon con- 
vinced other denominations that they too should have special 
representation for their rural constituencies. ‘The denomina- 
tions with organized rural church departments and paid execu- 
tives now giving full-time service are—The Methodist Episco- 
pal Church; Methodist Episcopal Church, South; Presbyterian 
in U. S. A.; Congregational Churches; Protestant Episcopal 
Church; Reformed Church in the U. S.; and the Presbyterian 
Church in the U.S. Other denominations have part-time work- 
ers whose major interests cover a broader field than the strictly 
rural. -It is likely that some of these will ultimately give more 
specific attention to the church needs of the countryside, and 


Tue SrruaTion AMONG PRoTEsTANT RuRAL CHURCHES 69 


most of them are now codperating in the interdenominational 
field. 

(L) Interdenominational and Non-Denominational Agencies. 
—Undoubtedly one of the most important interdenominational 
efforts for those interested in country church work was the 
Interchurch World Movement. By means of its nation-wide 
church surveys it secured statistical data regarding the rural 
church on the most extensive scale ever attempted. Upon the 
collapse of this movement there was danger of losing the value 
of this work, but finally a non-denominational agency (privately 
financed)—The Institute of Social and Religious Research— 
was organized to conserve the results, with Dr. E. deS. Brunner 
in charge of rural surveys. ‘This organization has interpreted 
and edited the survey data of the Interchurch World Movement 
and has initiated other important studies. Other agencies with 
which the rural church secretaries are codperating are The Home 
Missions Council, The Council.of Women for Home Missions, 
The American Country Life Association, The Federal Council of 
Churches of Christ in America, and The International Associa- 
tion of Agricultural Missions ‘The Councils of Churches in 
Ohio, Connecticut and Massachusetts have rendered great assist- 
ance in developing rural church programs. ‘The Massachusetts 
Council employed a full-time rural secretary in 1925 and the 
Ohio Council has made contributions by following up the Inter- 
church Survey and organizing county councils of churches. 

The Y. M. C. A. and Y. W. C. A. have also organized rural 
departments with full-time executives. ‘They have extended their 
services into rural America by means of county and district 
organization. For the most part these groups try to develop a 
codperative program which has proved very helpful to our rural 
boys and girls at a time when they have “outgrown” the Sunday 
school and have no other organization to champion their cause. 

(c) Codperative Training.—Realizing the need of preparing 
pastors for the rural ministry, several denominations have organ- 
ized summer training schools for rural pastors. ‘This movement 
finally developed into a codperative endeavor, when the state 
colleges and universities in different sections of the country 


70 Hanpgpook oF RuRAL SoctaL RESOURCES 


established interdenominational schools together with codperat- 
ing denominations. ‘The rural secretaries are busy for many 
weeks during the summer teaching rural-church and community 
organization methods at these schools. ‘The rural church depart- 
ments have made scholarships available to a number of their 
rural pastors in order that they may take advantage of this 
special training. 

But we need trained lay workers in our rural churches as well. 
Upon the recommendation of the rural church secretaries, the 
Missionary Education Movement is now preparing a study course 
on the rural church to be used in its mission study course in 
1926. In this way it is hoped that lay-workers can be enlisted 
in larger numbers to carry forward the program of the church 
in the country. 

(2) Government Agencies—The public agencies—tax sup- 
ported institutions—have begun to recognize the place of the 
church in rural life and are trying to link their services with 
those of the church in order that all of life may be spiritualized. 
Country school teachers are urged by their superintendents to 
become interested in the community as a whole, in all its prob- 
lems, and in the other institutions that are serving the local 
people. Agricultural colleges are preparing vocational teachers 
of agriculture and domestic science for rural high schools and for 
codperation with the religious forces of the community. The 
departments of agricultural extension of our state colleges and 
universities are now frequently taking the stand that the spiritual 
values of farm life are the most important, and the local repre- 
sentatives of the farm bureau and the home bureau are eager 
to work with, in and through the churches in order better to 
serve their constituencies. ‘The Bureau of Agricultural Eco- 
nomics of the United States Department of Agriculture is now 
preparing a bulletin for release in 1926 which will set forth 
the many ways in which rural pastors and their churches can 
codperate with the extension forces, Health and educational 
agencies are being requested to do the same. ‘The Extension 
Department of the West Virginia Agricultural College has a very 
complete and effective program of community codperation which 


Tue SiTuATION AMoNG PROTESTANT RURAL CHURCHES fii 


it is promoting in hundreds of communities throughout the 
state; the whole program centers in the church as the one in- 
stitution to establish spiritual goals and values in all community 
endeavor. ‘This plan has been in operation long enough to prove 
the soundness of the policy, as any study of its results will show. 
Other extension departments are much interested in -the plan. 
(e) Federation and Consolidation of Local Churches——This 
movement has been very rapid in recent years, especially since the 
war. Over-churched communities realized that their continued 
competition would not bring adequate religious service to the 
community, and they also appreciated the fact that the practical 
application of Christ’s principles in every-day living is more 
important than shades of difference in doctrinal beliefs. There- 
fore local church people united into one congregation with one 
pastor giving his whole time to the spiritual needs of that com- 
munity, and with an equipment extensive enough to house the 
entire church program. In some cases this church was organized 
as the federated type, in which each person still maintained his 
membership in his original denomination but united with all 
others for local work. Others were of the denominational type 
when competing churches withdrew by agreement from the 
field. Some of these denominational community churches en- 
roll those of other denominations on an affiliated membership 
list. Other very successful and well organized churches are 
independent of any denomination. All these types are organized 
for the same purpose, however, of bringing an adequate church 
unit to a much overchurched community. ‘There are probably 
a thousand of these community churches in rural communities 
throughout the United States and the number seems to have been 
increasing. Some of our home mission boards are now with- 
drawing aid from overchurched fields and are encouraging their 
people to codperate in the establishment of some form of com~- 
munity church. This is a hopeful movement and promises to 
counteract much of the present overchurching in rural areas. 
(f) The Larger Parish Plan.—This movement had its begin- 
ning in the Congregational Churches through the efforts of Dr. 
Malcolm Dana, the director of their rural church work. Several 


72 HanpBook oF RurRaL SoctAL RESOURCES 


“larger parishes” have been organized in this denomination and 
other denominations have begun to use the plan. A few inter- 
denominational larger parishes recently organized are also operat- 
ing with apparent success. The principle of the larger parish 
is that a pastor is called to a definite geographical area rather 
than to a church, and he with his staff of workers is responsible 
for the spiritual welfare of the total population of that area. 
Instead of having many small churches of different denominations 
served by several underpaid and overworked pastors, the area 
is united under one religious program whether denominational 
or interdenominational. Church membership is held in the 
central organization located generally at the most convenient 
community center. A fully equipped plant for worship, reli- 
gious education, social and recreational functions, is usually lo- 
cated at this center for use by the whole area. However, preach- 
ing points are maintained at convenient places throughout the 
parish, either in small church buildings located there, or in the 
school buildings, where services are held weekly and midweek 
activities are carried on for the immediate neighborhood. The 
pastor in charge need not be proficient along many lines as is 
expected of the average pastor to-day, for he will have his 
expert assistants in religious education, social and recreational 
activities, and finance. ‘These assistants may or may not be 
ordained ministers, and in some cases the positions are filled by 
young women. All members of the staff preach at various points 
each Sunday. Every one is assigned definite responsibility for a 
specific part of the religio-social program for the entire area, 
and through constant consultation and discussion the staff devel- 
ops the spiritual life of the area in a well-balanced progression. 
This plant offers, in addition to many other advantages, that of 
enlisting lay-workers for full-time Christian life service. 

(g) Community Effort of Churches—Many rural churches 
have established themselves as community centers, guiding the 
social as well as the spiritual life of the community, and empha- 
sizing in the minds and hearts of their constituencies the spiritual 
values of all human endeavor. These churches are codperating 
in a very definite way with the schools, the Grange, the Farm 


THe SiruatTion AMonGc ProTEsTANT RuRAL CHURCHES 73 


Bureau, the lodges, the farmers’ codperatives. In some commu- 
nities it has resulted in a central community program with all 
responsibilities definitely assigned to the different organizations 
found there. A community calendar of all events by all organi- 
zations is another practical feature. In several communities the 
pastor took the lead in providing a social hall for the area. In 
others the church organization erected a social hall or fitted the 
basement of the church building for such functions and made 
it available to the whole community. One pastor largely through 
his own efforts secured electricity for his community. Another 
conducted a farm products’ show for the purpose of encouraging 
better agricultural methods. Others became leaders of boys’ and 
girls’ clubs. ‘Through the efforts of still others, community 
groves were made available for all time to their people. Many 
have opened the doors of their church to baby clinics and health 
clinics of all kinds. ‘These are but a few examples. The list 
could be duplicated with cases of joint endeavor where two or 
more churches are located in a community. ‘To these might be 
added examples of joint visitation of all the people in the com- 
munity by the codperating pastors, community schools of religious 
training, daily vacation Bible schools, week-day religious instruc- 
tion, union Sunday schools ‘and union services. ‘These are in- 
deed evidences of a new spirit and a new vision developing 
within our rural communities which form a splendid beginning 
for larger endeavor. 

(4) Methods of the Rural Church Departments—Finally, a 
brief statement concerning the methods generally employed by 
the rural church departments may prove enlightening. In addi- 
tion to the methods discussed above, the rural secretaries are 
attempting to analyze the local conditions of individual fields 
through visitation, conference and survey; to inspire rural vision 
and endeavor through addresses, illustrated lectures, inspirational 
and educational articles, rural church papers and bulletins, sug- 
gested programs for community work, etc. ‘Through the em- 
ployment of seminary students for survey and supply work, an 
_ effort is made to prepare future ministers for the rural churches 


74 HanpBook oF RurRAL SoctAL REsoURCES 


and to inspire them with the opportunities for service which are 
to be found in the country. The task of the rural secretary, 


therefore, is largely to analyze, instruct, inspire, advise, 
demonstrate. 


Vill 
ORGANIZED RURAL RECREATION 


Lee F. HANMER 
Director, Department of Recreation, Russell Sage Foundation 


The chief reason for considering “rural recreation” as distinct 
from recreation in municipalities is not that country people are 
essentially different from city people, but that the task of getting 
suitable facilities for recreation in the country and providing for 
their administration presents problems that must be met in a 
different way. For instance, the per capita cost of trained play 
leadership on a municipal playground used by hundreds of chil- 
dren every day is quite different from that for a playground in 
the open country or a small village where but few children are 
to be accommodated and where capacity use happens only on 
occasions that are weeks and even months apart. Also the rural 
problem is a special one because organized play is fairly new in 
the country and only recently has it been considered necessary 
to make special provision for it. 


THE FORMATION OF RECREATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS 


With the increase of codperation in the industrial life of the 
country there has developed a greater sense of community respon- 
sibility for social and recreational interests. Formerly, recrea- 
tion in the country was decidedly an informal spontaneous, inci- 
dental matter. Except for picnics and “parties” it was very 
much of an individual or small group affair. Even the schools 
had little or no playground space—never any play equipment— 
and the children were admonished not to “play along the way” 
going to or from school. In fact, play was quite generally 


75 


76 Hanpgpook oF RurRaAL SociaL RESOURCES 


looked upon as a waste of time, or at best a youthful folly that 
must be tolerated. This is in sharp contrast with what the rural 
districts are experiencing to-day in the form of community play 
festivals, large equipped school playgrounds, school buildings 
constructed and furnished to accommodate recreational uses, com- 
munity houses, athletic fields, reservations for camping, and 
organizations with trained recreational leaders. ‘The promotion 
of organizations for boys and girls such as Boy Scouts, Camp 
Fire Girls, Girl Scouts, Woodcraft League, Boy Rangers, Four 
H Clubs, etc., is directing respectful attention to play for young 
people and emphasizing the need of space and equipment set 
aside and dedicated to this use. ‘The time-honored recreation 
activities have not changed as to their fundamentals, but have 
been extended and adapted to various programs and situations. 


THE TRAINING OF PLAY LEADERS 


The most significant thing in recent progress in rural recrea- 
tion is organization and provision for training play leaders. The 
training schools for teachers are including in their courses in- 
struction in play leadership and administration. ‘These teachers 
must also know how to select and train volunteer leaders, because 
much of the leadership for the small scattered groups must be 
given by volunteers. ‘The farm and home bureau agents also 
need this training, since their club organization for boys and girls, 
the various demonstration centers, and the bureau meetings and 
picnics have or well may have a strong recreational content. 
Community singing has come to have a useful and enjoyable 
place on the program of these meetings. 

The church with its community house is the center of much of 
the recreational life of the country as well as of the city. In 
this connection dramatics have an important part. Amateur 
plays, pageants and tableaux seem to be increasingly popular 
with both the young and the old, and some highly creditable 
productions are resulting. It is possible that the increased use 
of motion pictures in rural communities is partly responsible for 
this growing interest in dramatics. Electric lighting, which is 


ORGANIZED RuRAL RECREATION 77 


rapidly coming into practical use in the country, is a helpful 
agent in extending the use of motion pictures and in facilitating 
the staging of amateur plays. A recent issue of a rural weekly 
paper contained notice of seven amateur plays that were being 
given in the churches, schoolhouses and halls of that vicinity. 


THE BASEBALL SITUATION 


Baseball as an amateur sport, particularly in the country dis- 
tricts where its early development took place, is in danger of 
becoming predominantly professional and to function chiefly as a 
spectacle for the crowds instead of as a delightful form of recrea- 
tion in which many may participate. Inter-community rivalry 
stimulated artificially by betting has resulted in local teams made 
up partly of hired players and all sharing to some extent in gate 
receipts or collections. This results quickly and naturally in a 
strictly commercial amusement. Boys as well as men at once be- 
come spectators instead of participants. ‘The National Amateur 
Athletic Federation in an effort to save baseball as a fine, whole- 
some game for boys and men and to help in rescuing it as an 
amateur sport, has made a country-wide survey and drafted some 
conclusions and suggestions. “These may properly be summarized 
here as bearing upon the present situation in rural recreation: 

This survey shows that in many cities and towns the game is 
going forward in leaps and bounds due to the inauguration of 
amateur leagues. It also shows conclusively that baseball has 
been losing ground in the great majority of the smaller cities and 
towns due to the fact that they have been trying to conduct 
it on a semi-professional basis and have been failing miserably 
in their efforts. ‘The survey further shows that not only have 
the efforts to conduct the game on a semi-professional basis met 
with financial failure, but that the towns are not providing facili- 
ties for large numbers of boys to play amateur ball. 

Briefly, the survey brought out that: 

(1) Baseball as a game for the amusement of the spectators 
in the professional leagues is most successful. 


78 Hanppook oF RuRAL SoctaL REsouRCES 


(2) Baseball is tourishing in communities where it is being 
promoted on a purely amateur basis. 

(3) Baseball is suffering or actually “dying out” in commu- 
nities that are trying to conduct it on a semi-professional basis. 

(4) Baseball has been given a “black eye” in many commu- 
nities due to “irregular” management of semi-professional 
“town” teams. 

(5) Many communities are not providing any place for their 
boys to play the game. 

The National Amateur Athletic Federation believes that: 

(1) Baseball is a game which every boy should play because 
of the physical and mental benefits derived therefrom. 

(2) The boys should have an opportunity to play the game 
under auspices which tend toward the development of high ideals 
and good citizenship. 

(3) Communities are making a serious mistake when they 
attempt to “import” or “hire” players to represent them. 

(4) The home town boys should not expect payment for 
playing baseball any more than they do for golf and tennis, 
providing an attempt is not made to “employ” outside players. 

(5) Every town, every church, every Sunday school, every 
fraternal order, every industrial plant, and every neighborhood 
should have at least one amateur baseball team. 

(6) Every community should provide ample baseball grounds 
for its boys and young men. 

(7) The responsible citizens in every community should see 
that the men selected to administer their baseball are those who 
will exert a wholesome influence over the players. ‘They should 
be the type of men who hold high ethical standards of sportsman- 
ship and who can be depended upon not to stoop to petty prac- 
tices for the sake of “winning.” 

(8) The life of baseball in the smaller cities and towns, 
and its survival as our great “national game” is dependent upon 
its being conducted on a purely amateur basis, 


ORGANIZED RuRAL RECREATION 79 


TYPICAL PROJECTS 


Automobiles are, of course, exerting a marked influence on 
free-time activities in the country, and the extension of good 
roads is an important contributing factor. Country people are 
able to get quickly and comfortably to and from centers of 
amusement, and week-end and holiday trips to parks, camp sites 
and bathing beaches are brought within easy range of practically 
everyone. State and county park commissions are making won- 
derful progress in providing these facilities which serve both 
country and city dwellers. Regional planning, which is coming 
to include county and township planning, is stimulating and 
guiding public effort in making provision for its recreational 
needs. Westchester County, New York, is a notable instance 
of marked progress in this direction. 

As evidence of recent progress in rural recreation it might be 
well to mention a few typical developments in various parts of 
the United States. Marion Center, Pa., and the surrounding 
farming district united to purchase and thus “to preserve forever 
for the free use of the people” a picnic grove with stream and 
swimming hole that had been used informally by the public for 
some time but which was in danger of being sold to a lumber 
company. ‘I'wenty-eight hundred dollars was raised by contribu- 
tions to purchase the fourteen acres desired. About eight hun- 
dred people contributed, fully one-half of whom were farmers. 
Labor and materials were contributed for cleaning up, grading, 
draining, and for constructing necessary buildings and conveni- 
ences. A board of seven trustees, four of whom were farmers, 
were elected by the contributors. The ownership rests with the 
association which was formed for this purpose. 

A rural school ground at Stanton, N. J., was equipped with 
homemade apparatus as the result of interest stimulated by a 
summer resident. The parent-teacher association codperated by 
means of an entertainment, the entire cash outlay was only 
$40.24. The district superintendent of schools became inter- 
ested, and the country papers printed a descriptive article with 
pictures of the playground in use. As a result of the aroused 


80 Hanppook oF RurRAL SocrAL RESOURCES 


interest, a small appropriation was made to each rural school in 
the county to stimulate similar action. 

Ulster County, New York, has an annual field day and play 
festival that came into being through the interest of the prin- 
cipal of the state normal school at New Paltz. The district 
schools throughout the county receive early in the year the list 
of events and practice them in preparation for the competitions 
at the field day. It is a play day for adults as well as children, 
and is one of the events of the year looked forward to with keen 
interest. 

Near Canandaigua, New York, there was an old one-room 
schoolhouse erected in 1819. The land allotted for the school 
was exactly the same size as the building. ‘The outhouses were 
built on highway land. Someone started an agitation for a better 
rural school plant. A farmer donated an acre of land and the 
taxpayers voted a levy of $2,000. The State College of Agri- 
culture contributed plans for building and grounds. Local inter- 
est and pride were so stimulated by the new project that an 
endowment fund was raised by popular subscription to provide a 
permanent income for the care and improvement of the grounds. 
Pleasing architecture, well located play apparatus, and artistic 
planting have produced a country school plant that is yielding a 
substantial return in service and satisfaction. 

A recent government bulletin on the social aspects of recrea- 
tion places in rural planning contains the following suggestive 
description of a farmers’ community park: 

“Near Niagara, North Dakota, is a farmers’ park, in the 
open country, financed, operated, owned, maintained, and used 
by farmers. Why should country people, in a business partner- 
ship with nature itself, have to go to town to enjoy the pleasures 
of a park? Why should farm families have to go to someone’s 
private grove or lake front for a picnic? Why should farm boys 
and girls have to go to the town athletic field or playground, 
in which they have no sense of ownership, for baseball, basket 
ball, or athletic games and sports? 

‘These were questions that the farming people about Niagara 
and Shawnee in North Dakota asked themselves. They already 


ORGANIZED RuRAL RECREATION 81 


had a progressive agricultural club, One of the good things 
about such a club is that the public discussions bring out many 
valuable ideas, not only about raising wheat, hogs, and potatoes, 
but also about how to live a good kind of life while raising them. 
There was little of precedent to guide them, so it was necessary 
to solve such questions as: 

“1, Where should the park be? ‘There was a natural growth 
of timber along the head of Turtle River which in old days had 
been the natural gathering place of the countryside, but which 
private interests had later acquired. This grove was decided 
upon. 

“2. How should the original purchase be financed? Eleven 
acres would suit their plans, and each acre would cost $200, 
so $2,200 was the sum needed. ‘They solved this problem by 
organizing a stock company, incorporated under state laws, the 
Bachelor’s Grove Community Park Association, with shares at 
$25 each. When the shares were all sold it was found that 95 
per cent of them were owned by farmers, with nearly every 
family in the region the possessor of at least one share. ‘The 
remaining 5 per cent were held by people of the surrounding 
villages of 200 to 300 population. 

“3. Of what should the improvements consist? Here was 
pleasure of planning. The first year saw the grounds cleaned 
of underbrush and surrounded by a fence. The next year a 
kitchen, a refreshment parlor, and a pavilion 80 by 92 feet were 
completed. Succeeding improvements included a baseball park, 
ice house, engine house, check room, lavatories, cement walks 
and improved roads, three wells with pumps, tables and picnic 
benches, and an electric-lighting system for buildings, grounds, 
and the approaches. The cost of the improvements alone 
amounted to $16,000, although there was considerable voluntary 
managerial labor. 

“4, How should the improvements be financed and the plant 
maintained? Experience determined the answer to these ques- 
tions. ‘The income is derived from receipts from athletic games, 
dances, the lunch and confectionary stands, and the merry-go- 
round, and other concessions. When an association secures the 


82 Hanppook oF RuRAL SocraL RESOURCES 


use of the ground for a picnic, profits are divided on a percent- 
age basis. A caretaker receives $80 per month for four sum- 
mer months. At each public entertainment three people are 
hired at each stand at $3 each per day or night. For dances 
the orchestra is paid $50 and five ticket takers $1.50 each per 
night. Electric lighting for all the buildings costs about $15 
per night. There is no charge to enter the grounds, open to 
everyone at all times, but the buildings are locked when not in 
use and during the summer are in charge of a caretaker, who 
makes kitchen privileges available to picnickers. 

“5. How should the park be used? It was decided that no 
set program should be arranged, but that the use of the park 
should be left to the wishes of the community. The follow- 
ing events held, among others, indicate the influence that the 
park has had on the social life of these country people: (4) Open- 
ing day, with 5,000 in attendance. (4) Picnics. During the 
summer months there is an average of one picnic a week, held by 
such organizations as the country farm bureau, the agricultural 
club, various lodges, the aid societies of the different churches, 
the American Legion, or the park board, and by groups from 
neighboring towns. On nearly every Sunday there are family 
picnics on the grounds. (c) Athletic games and contests be- 
tween neighboring teams. (d) Supervised dancing in charge of 
some of the older people. (¢) A summar Chautauqua course. 
(f) General meetings by such organizations as high-school socie- 
ties, boys’ and girls’ clubs, and the church societies, for which 
no charge for the use of the grounds is made. 

“Times have been hard for the farmers the last two years, 
and the park during that time has not yielded large profits; but, 
if imitation be the sincerest flattery, they may be well pieased, 
for the old settlers’ association of the adjoining county, Nelson, 
secured the Bachelor Grove plans and blue prints and created a 
similar park; and this can be done easily by any ordinary rural 
community.” 

Two counties in Minnesota and two in North Dakota have 
united in forming a park association and have purchased and 
developed a forty-acre wooded tract on the Minnesota side of 


ORGANIZED RURAL RECREATION 83 


the Red River as a country recreation center. By means of 
“working bees” the people of these four counties have cleared 
up the underbrush, built roads, laid out an athletic field with 
bleacher seats for 600, erected a pavilion with kitchen, installed 
electric lights and running water, and fenced the grounds. 
The report concludes, ““When completed, this park with its 
beautiful trees, ferns, vines, winding drives, and its half-mile 
of river front, was dedicated to the memory of the local boys 
who lost their lives in the World War.” 

In Lincoln County, Washington, twelve miles from any rail- 
road, a farmers’ association has purchased and developed a 160- 
acre tract on which is a grove of natural timber. A half-mile 
racing track with grandstand, an athletic field, a band stand, a 
dance pavilion, a restaurant, and camping facilities are included 
in the equipment. Tents for agricultural exhibits have recently 
been added. Several similar projects have been undertaken in 
other parts of the state. 

One of the most interesting projects in the direction of rural 
recreation has taken place in West Virginia, where the state by 
gift and purchase has acquired 35 acres of the old Stonewall 
Jackson farm on the west fork of the Monongahela River and 
placed it at the disposal of the State School of Agriculture as a 
camp for the 4-H clubs. ‘Thirty-five counties have provided 
county training camps for these boys’ and girls’ clubs, and the 
state camp is the climax of the plan. The 4-H club program 
includes a wide range of activities that make for the best of 
head, heart, hand and health. ‘They are given a practical appli- 
cation to everyday life. Recreation has an important place 
among the activities. 

Notable progress is being made by several states in the devel- 
opment of a system of state parks. The natural scenic beauties 
of forest, mountain, lake and stream are thus being preserved, 
and camping and picnic facilities for country and city people are 
thus made available. State parks within an easy day’s drive of 
each other is the ideal set by some of the states. These outing 
facilities will tend to relieve farmers from petty annoyances 
occasioned by automobile tourists camping on their property, 


84 Hanpspook oF RurRAuL SociAL RESOURCES 


and at the same time will provide for rural dwellers interesting 
objectives for holiday, week-end, and vacation trips. For the 
districts immediately surrounding these state parks, they serve 
as comfortable picnic grounds and centers for public meetings 
and celebrations. Country and city folks are thus brought to- 
gether in a way that should make for better understanding and 
codperation in a wide range of mutual interests. 

A bulletin on “Field Days” issued in 1925 by the Depart- 
ment of Education of the State of Alabama contains a wealth of 
practical information for those arranging school play festivals, 
especially in the country, and clearly indicates the trend of 
progress in rural recreation. 


IX 
FARM WOMEN’S ORGANIZATIONS 


Grace E. FRYSINGER 
United States Department of Agriculture 


EARLY ORGANIZATIONS OF FARM WOMEN 


Although formal organizations of farm women have developed 
at a comparatively recent date, discussions among farm women 
probably existed as early as farm women had any opportunity to 
get together. As early as May, 1857, a group of farm women in 
Maryland formed a “Mutual Improvement Association.” ‘This 
organization has been continuous from that date to the present, 
having recently held its 823rd meeting. ‘The object of the as- 
sociation was “to offer for the benefit of the association such 
information as we may have obtained, by experience or other- 
wise, in any way calculated to elevate the minds, increase the 
happiness, lighten the labor, or add to the comfort of one another, 
our families or neighbors.” Another well known and long con- 
tinued organization of rural women stated its object as “a means 
of getting farm women together into groups for daytime meet- 
ings in their communities to study and work on farm homemak- 
ing problems; also to consider means of closer social contact with 
neighboring farm women.” ‘The form of these early organiza- 
tions and their meetings were patterned rather closely after that 
of all orthodox organizations preceding them. A constitution 
and by-laws were formed and formally adopted. ‘The usual 
four officers, or their equivalent, were elected and regular meet- 
ings were scheduled one or two afternoons a month. The 
obvious leader was chosen as president, and frequently was re- 
elected year after year. The regular meeting was usually quite 


85 


86 Hanppook oF RurRAL SociaAL REsouRCES 


formal in its procedure with regard to roll call, reports, old and 
new business, etc. A formal paper was read by some one of the 
group. Usually this responsibility fell upon each of the club 
members in alphabetical order. 

The serious part of the program of these early organizations 
was followed by a social hour. Food was a dominant feature 
and conversation was varied. It is probable that as much satis- 
faction was gained during these informal chats as during the 
more formal paper of the earlier hours—certain it is that strength 
and courage were gained during this time as hearts were unbur- 
dened and experiences exchanged. ‘This hour undoubtedly was 
hallowed in the soul of every early farm club woman, and helped 
her to live through the busy and often lonely days until the 
group met again. 


PRESENT DAY CONDITIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS 


What of the present day organizations of farm women? 
First of all, let us look at the farm woman of to-day and at her 
environment, that we may better understand the many definite 
changes which have already come about and appreciate the 
trends so clearly indicated. ‘The farm woman of to-day lives 
in a world vastly different from that of her mother and infinitely 
different from that of her grandmother. During the lifetime 
of the present day farm woman, mechanical and scientific devel- 
opments have revolutionized the entire world, the farm no less 
than the factory. During this same period, the movie, radio, 
automobile, aeroplane, and countless mechanical devices have 
been invented, and those powerful servants of man, steam and 
electricity, have been harnessed to the major appliances helpful 
in home and farm. Good roads, rural free delivery, telephones, 
and increased service of press and railroads have served to an- 
nihilate distance, and mechanical power has removed much of 
the drudgery of the earlier day of farm housekeeping. ‘The 
farm woman of to-day lives in an age of factory production, and 
many of the productive activities have been removed from the 
home. In addition, great world movements, together with the © 


Farm WoMEN’s ORGANIZATIONS 87 


stimulus of the war, have changed public opinion as to the place 
of women, so that the activities of the farm woman are limited 
only by her vision, her interests, and her capabilities. 

The complexity of life to-day and the realization by farm 
women of their responsibilities to their children as mothers, to 
their husbands as partners and companions and to their commu- 
nity for a part in the social, civic, political, educational and 
spiritual well being of the whole community has materially 
affected the whole scheme of organizations of farm women. 
It has affected the type of program, and the whole plan of pro- 
cedure in the older organizations, and has set up new and demo- 
cratic standards for the organizations. 

The content of the program of the various older organiza- 
tions of farm women indicates the change referred to. The 
women are still interested in matters of food, clothing and 
shelter, pictures, books, music, poetry, and art; but they study 
these topics from a new angle. Good roads, telephone, automo- 
biles, and radios have dispelled the specter of loneliness and 
isolation. ‘The farm woman of to-day, like her urban sister, 
is apt to be beset by too many demands upon her time. Thus 
she demands that meetings to-day shall make a definite and 
practical contribution to her every day life. ‘That contribution 
may concern itself with standards of life, with ways of expend- 
ing her time, energy and income in the direction of those stand- 
ards, or it may reach into the civic and political world of her 
newer responsibilities outside the four walls of her home, but it 
must challenge her and render to her a practical service of some 
kind whether that be enlarged knowledge of some basic social or 
spiritual problem, or improved practices in the training of her 
children or methods of housekeeping. 

Matters of civic interest are considered, and ways and means 
are devised to realize standards of civic efficiency. The respon- 
sibilities of women as voters are given deep study and, either 
directly or through the League of Women Voters, candidates for 
office are asked to express their views for the benefit of these 
rural women. In many of the present day farm women’s organi- 
zations, codperative marketing finds important consideration. 


88 HanppBook oF Rurat SociaL RESOURCES 


Farm women always have done the major part of the farm book- 
keeping, of the purchasing, and some of the selling for the 
farm, but in the earlier years they shrank from consideration 
of economic or legislative matters, as entirely outside the scope 
of “womanly”’ activities. 

To-day thousands of farm women are purchasing marketing 
supplies and selling their home industry products codperatively, 
and they are attending to the business end of these activities, 
Significant of the changes in the type of programs and in the 
broader considerations accorded to any given topic in the farm 
women’s organizations of to-day are the following programs of a 
given organization for the years 1915 and 1925. 


1915 


January—Farmhouse Heating. 

February—Farmhouse Plumbing. 

March—Farmhouse Architecture. 

April—The Women and the Garden. 

May—The Farmhouse Yard. 

June—Composition of Vegetables, Grains, Meats and Fruits. 
July—How to Combine Foods. 

August—What Our Club Can Do to Improve Our Community. 
September—School Children’s Food. 

October—Our Duty to Our Schools. 

November—Infectious Diseases and Our Quarantine Laws. 
December—FPersonal Hygiene. 


1925 


January—Present vs. Former Standards of Conduct and Thought: 
1. In General. 2. In Our Community. 

February—Manners: Personal, Family, School, Neighborhood and 
Community. How Good Breeding Is Instilled. 

March—Fundamentals of Character. Is Present Lawlessness Due 
in Any Degree to Carelessness about Religious Training? 
What Is Religion? Our Rural Churches. 

April—Helps for Training Children to Be Good Citizens. 

May—Physical and Mental Handicaps. Heredity. Mind and 
Body Health Clinic Results in Modern Schools. 

June—Vocational Guidance as Conducted in Our Best School 
Systems. Making the Most of Ability and Safeguarding 
Weaknesses. 

July—Planning for Our Children’s Future. Good Health Birth- 
right, Financing Education, etc. ‘Thrift Training. Value of 
Our Boys’ and Girls’ Club Work. 

August—Good Kinds of Recreation for Young and Adults. 


Farm WoMeEn’s ORGANIZATIONS 89 


September—Plans for Codperating with Teachers for Best Results 
the Coming Year. 

October—Some Christmas Book Suggestions. 

November—My Idea of Being in Good Shape for Winter.. 

December—An Afternoon with Jesus. 


Not only have the titles of topics for meetings changed during 
this past decennium, but so fast have events occurred that the 
content of a 1925 paper will disclose world wide knowledge 
of economic and social facts, and a recognition of community 
responsibilities by the women’s organizations, and by individual 
women, which would not have been dreamed of a decade ago. 


TRENDS IN ADMINISTRATION 


In addition to this change in program of the meetings the 
administrative procedure of present day organizations of rural 
women is also indicative of new trends. ‘There is far less for- 
mality to-day, and yet the entire business meeting is carried on 
with the most approved methods of parliamentary procedure, 
which every member studies, understands and practices. <A far 
greater amount of democracy prevails. In addition, most of the 
work of the organization is done through committee activity, thus 
decentralizing responsibility and developing initiative and ability 
on the part of all members. 

Discussion is rapidly taking the place of the prepared paper at 
the meetings. For ten or fifteen minutes one member will pre- 
sent some important facts for consideration or will demonstrate 
some newly developed practice before the group. ‘This is usu- 
ally done extemporaneously or with the aid of a few notes. 
The rest of the meeting is taken up by general discussions from 
the floor, and the one making the presentation seeks to open up 
the subject for discussion, rather than to pronounce final 
judgment. Far less time is given to the purely social side of 
the meeting, as expressed in elaborate feasting. This is not so 
necessary in this day, since farm women have many opportuni- 
ties for social contacts. Many organizations of farm women 
serve no food at their meetings. Where refreshments are still 
served, only the simplest food is prepared, whether it be a simple 


90 HanpBpook oF RurRAL SociaAL RESOURCES 


noonday lunch for an all day meeting, or refreshments following 
an afternoon session. 

Most present day organizations of rural women emphasize 
their work program and they seriously present, or attentively lis- 
ten to, the topic under discussion. In some organizations of 
farm women, the program is still as diversified as those of a gen- 
eration ago, but in others the women of the local unit center 
their attention upon some outstanding subject which is presented 
in some form at each meeting of the year, with cumulative effect. 


CHANGES IN FORM OF ORGANIZATION 


The earlier organizations for farm women were about equally 
divided between two types—those for women only, and those 
for men and women, with husband and wife both voting on all 
matters requiring consideration of the membership. More re- 
cently, a type of organization has been developed having family 
membership—one family, one vote. This has led to some dis- 
satisfaction on the part of farm women who, through proved 
experience, have demonstrated their abilities and who desire defi- 
nite responsibilities and definite voting privileges, as well as 
definite recognition of their achievements. More and more are 
farm women desiring to become a part of an organization which 
is one of farm women only, or farm men and women on a basis 
of equal representation of women and men in places of respon- 
sibility and of honor. Farm women are recognizing the value 
of increased contacts. ‘This is being expressed in the formation 
of clubs of rural women, in community organizations of farm 
families, federation of farm women’s groups within the county, 
affiliation with urban groups of women, and in many instances 
federation with the county, state, and national federations of 
women’s clubs. Farm women are joining many national organi- 
zations of varying interests. ‘They are attending national and 
international meetings. ‘They are becoming more broadgauged 
in thought and action. 


Farm WoMeENn’s ORGANIZATIONS 91 


TRENDS IN FUNCTION 


Farm women are recognizing a new type of service which their 
organizations can render to the membership. They realize that 
whereas in the early years there were but few agencies available to 
help them and that it was necessary for most of the leadership of 
organization, administration, and program making for their clubs 
to come from the members’ own efforts, more recently many 
avenues of federal and state, public, semi-public, and private 
helps have developed, which offer highly trained technical 
leadership in matters of general and of specialized concern to 
farm women. Some of these agencies cover the general field of 
rural homemaking. Others serve the more specialized fields of 
recreation, health, library, civics, and the like. 

Farm women are appreciating the valuable help of these ex- 
perts and are looking to them for authentic information along 
their respective lines. Thus are farm women’s organizations 
becoming clearing centers where groups of farm women learn 
direct from accepted authority the latest information regarding 
matters which the women themselves deem important. 

In addition, farm women are recognizing that their organiza- 
tions form avenues of expression for an important sector of public 
opinion, and they are earnestly endeavoring to help put public 
institutions on a plane of statesmanship and efficiency. ‘They 
are utilizing their organizations to demand public expenditures 
for public wellbeing. ‘They are asking of public officials state- 
ments as to their policies and platforms, and are demanding that 
pledges to the public be fulfilled. They are meeting in joint 
session with urban organizations of women to further common 
interests, 

Farm women’s organizations are fostering many types of public 
welfare work. Better school buildings, school equipment and 
better trained school teachers, as well as adequate living facilities 
for school teachers and better school lunches for teachers and 
pupils alike are being made the objects of their efforts. Im- 
proved Sunday school service, better roads and road signs, com- 
munity recreation, better forms of public amusement, better 


92 HanppBook oF Rurat SociaL REsouRCES 


public health facilities, rest rooms for rural people, instruction 
in voting responsibilities and procedure, initiation or improve- 
ment of exhibits at community, county, and state fairs, com- 
munity recreation, and recreational equipment have all been aided 
by rural women’s organizations. 

The sponsoring of rural recreation, dramatics and music have 
been largely developed during the past few years and it has 
brought much of mirth and joy to rural people during a period 
of economic depression. Formal education has always received 
the support of rural women’s organizations. Especial emphasis 
has been laid on education for homemaking during the past few 
years, and home economics in its formal presentation in the 
classroom, as well as home demonstration work in its less formal 
presentation to farm women and girls in the farm home, has 
received the enthusiastic commendation and formal endorsement 
of all organizations of farm women as well as the farm organi- 
zations admitting both men and women. 

Farm women’s organizations have each year sensed more clearly 
their opportunity for assisting in promoting education. A new 
service on the part of some of these organizations is the provi- 
sion of a loan fund which can be used by farm boys and girls 
for formal education which would be impossible without such 
aid. Farm women’s organizations are also sponsoring social and 
educational activities designed to help farm boys and girls to 
better understand and appreciate rural life and to become efficient 
in activities connected with farming and farm homemaking. 
Farm women are recognizing the need of more spiritual guidance 
for the youth of the open country and are using their organiza- 
tions to bring this matter to the attention of all rural parents. 
As a result the subject is discussed at meetings of rural women 
and Sunday schools long since closed are being reopened, chil- 
dren long absent from available Sunday schools are attending 
regularly and farm men and women are taking responsibility for 
the religious training and leadership of young people from 
farm homes. 

Farm women are recognizing the place of their organizations in 
promoting legislation of a constructive nature. They are ana- 


Farm WomeEn’s ORGANIZATIONS 93 


lyzing proposed legislation and are indorsing and promoting or 
are energetically opposing many measures before township, 
county, state and national bodies. "They are endeavoring to ana- 
lyze the needs of all people and particularly are they studying 
the needs of rural people which should be matters of public 
concern, and they are helping to shape legislation to that end. 
They obtain able leadership to sponsor desired legislation and use 
every effort to rally voters to its support. 


X 


NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL LEGISLA- 
TION, 1921-25 


RoBERT SAMUEL FLETCHER 
United States Department of Agriculture 


The apparent prosperity of American agriculture at the close 
of the World War was the result of abnormal conditions, and 
a reaction, sooner or later, was practically certain. Early in 1920 
the period of depression set in, an era of typical “hard times,” 
unemployment, declining wages, declining prices, “tight”’ credit, 
and a general lack of business confidence. In the precipitous 
drop in prices that took place, agricultural products led the way. 
The farmer found himself in the embarrassing situation of re- 
ceiving less and less for his output but having to pay proportion- 
ately more and more for everything he had to buy. (In May, 
1919, the purchasing power of the farmer’s products, meas- 
ured by the relation of farm prices to wholesale prices of non- 
agricultural products on a 1909-13 base at 100, was 117 as 
compared with 77 in May, 1921.) But as his purchasing power 
declined his debts and the interest thereon remained at par and 
thus came to represent much more real value than they did at the 
time contracted. In addition to this, it became much more 
dificult to secure renewals. In the Northwest, 1919 was a 
drought year and this combined with the general depression 
to drive many farmers and financial institutions dependent on 
farmers into bankruptcy. It was apparent that not only the 
farming interests but the welfare of the nation as a whole was 
threatened. 

The sixty-seventh Congress, which lasted from April, 1921, 
to March, 1923, devoted much of its time and attention to these 


94 


NaTIonaL AGRICULTURAL LEGISLATION, 1921-1925 95 


problems. A commission made up of members of both houses 
and known as the Joint Commission of Agricultural Inquiry, 
made an extended study of the agricultural situation and (with 
the aid of experts from various branches of the government serv- 
ice) prepared a painstaking and valuable report in which a pro- 
gram of legislation was suggested. ‘Though the recommendations 
of this commission were not in all cases carried out, their report 
served as a textbook for agricultural legislation in that and the 
succeeding Congress. Some of the more important acts relating 
to agriculture passed by Congress since 1921 are here reviewed: 


TARIFF ACTS OF 1921 anp 1922 


The emergency tariff act was passed in 1921. The general 
deflation in agricultural prices continued, however, in the United 
States as well as in the rest of the world. The tariff act of 1922 
made no revolutionary changes but followed very closely the 
policy of the emergency tariff. It should be noted that the 
schedule for agricultural products is the lowest included in the 
act and that only about a third of the classifications in this 
schedule are true farm products. ‘The majority are manufac- 
tured products such as flours, canned and prepared fruits, etc.* 


AGRICULTURAL CREDIT 


One of the results of the agricultural developments of the 
last century was greatly to increase the capital requirements of the 
industry. Even before our entrance into the World War the 
government had recognized the increasing need and created the 
Federal Farm Loan System. When we joined the Allies one of 
their greatest demands was for food—and more food. In order 
to increase the food surplus of this country the farmer required 
more capital. Much credit was provided by national and private 
agencies and the farmer went heavily in debt in order to increase 
his production. After the war was ended the foreign market 
broke; soldiers returned to their farms; new sources of supply 


1Cf. Dictionary of Tariff Information, Washington, D. C., United States 
Tariff Commission, 1924, p. 20. 


96 HaNnpDBook OF RuRAL SociAL REsouRCES 


were opened up; and the credit of many countries accustomed to 
purchasing some of our surplus was exhausted. Prices dropped, 
but the farmers’ debts still remained at the level of greatest 
inflation. Many credit agencies attempted to call their loans and 
often the bankruptcy of both farmer and bank resulted. It 
was obvious that the financial system was inadequate to the farm- 
ers’ needs and that at this time, particularly, additional credit 
was needed to tide over the country banks to a time of higher 
prices and greater prosperity and to enable the farmers to change 
their system of agriculture to meet the new needs of the time. 

In 1921 and 1922 three things were done by Congress to 
improve the situation as to agricultural credit: it was made pos- 
sible for the land banks to extend the field of their mortgage 
loans; farmers were assured fair representation on the Federal 
Reserve Board, and the powers of the War Finance Corporation 
were extended. ‘The War Finance Corporation was not origi- 
nally created for the special purposes of agriculture but merely 
“to provide credits for industries and enterprises in the United 
States necessary or contributory to the prosecution of the war.” 
In so far as agriculture was recognized as being one of such 
industries it was included, but no further. In August, 1921, the 
powers of the corporation were specially extended to enable it to 
make loans “to any codperative association of producers in the 
United States which may have made advances for agricultural 
purposes, including breeding, raising, fattening, and marketing 
of live stock.” During the three years from August, 1921, to 
November, 1924, the corporation made loans under this act 
totalling $297,934,000 and approved other loans amounting to 
almost $480,000,000. ‘These loans did an important work in 
tiding over the country banks and codperative associations through 
the crisis. | 

The Agricultural Credits Act passed on March 4, 1923, though 
enacted under pressure of an agricultural crisis, met the long-felt 
demand for some form of “intermediate” credit and should cer- 
tainly not be considered as primarily emergency legislation. In 
the past agricultural credit was placed in the simple classification 
of long-time or mortgage credit and short-time or personal credit. 


NaTionaL AGRICULTURAL LEGISLATION, 1921-1925 97 


There are many occasions when farmers require loans for inter- 
mediate periods, z.¢., for a term longer than the three to six 
months maturity granted by local banks, but less than the usual 
farm mortgage term of five years. Cattle growers especially 
desire such loans. ‘To meet this demand it was the practice in 
the past to renew short time loans one or more times. ‘This, 
however, was troublesome because it involved the inconvenience 
and expense of frequent renewals and made the loan liable to 
call at what were often embarrassing occasions for the farmer. 
Commercial banks would not furnish loans for intermediate pe- 
riods because of their need of a higher percentage of compara- 
tively liquid paper. In the Agricultural Credits Act the United 
States Government took it upon itself to furnish the means for 
providing such intermediate credit. ‘Two systems were provided 
to furnish it; one, a system of national agricultural credit cor- 
porations, in which the capital was provided by private indi- 
viduals, and the other, the intermediate credit bank system, the 
capital of which was supplied by the government. 

The national agricultural credit corporations as authorized by 
this act were to be under the supervision of the Comptroller 
of the Currency. They could rediscount agricultural paper and 
make direct loans to individuals. Only one such corporation has 
been actually organized to date (November 1, 1925), but the 
prospects have improved since the law was amended, permitting 
these corporations to utilize the rediscount facilities of the Fed- 
eral Intermediate Credit Banks, and the organization of a number 
of others is now under way. 

The federal intermediate credit bank has virtually the same 
officers and directors as the federal land bank but it is wholly 
independent in that it has entirely separate funds and accounts 
and an operating staff of its own. ‘The bank does not deal with 
the farmer directly but discounts the paper of companies dealing 
in agricultural loans. It may deal, however, with codperative 
credit or marketing associations as well as with the agricultural 
credit corporations. Direct loans are made to codperative market- 
ing associations on the basis of warehouse receipts on staple prod- 
ucts. Corn, cotton, wool, tobacco, peanuts, broom corn, beans, 


98 Hanpspook oF RurAt SoctaL RESOURCES 


alfalfa and red-top clover seed, hay, nuts, dried prunes, dried 
raisins, canned fruits and vegetables have been listed as satisfac- 
tory security for such loans. During 1924 it was possible to 
make loans at a comparatively low interest rate, ranging from 
414 to 514 per cent. Codperative marketing associations have 
made extensive use of this source of credit. Agricultural credit 
corporations and cattle-loan companies are also taking advantage 
of its facilities to an increasing extent. Any group of citizens 
may organize an agricultural credit corporation provided they 
have a paid-in capital of $10,000 and are organized under the 
local state law. ‘The maximum amount of paper which can be 
discounted with the intermediate credit bank is ten times their 
unimpaired capital and surplus. The actual amount discounted, 
however, will vary with each individual corporation and rarely 
reaches the maximum. State and national banks have discounted 
only a small amount of paper with the intermediate credit bank 
as it has been comparatively easy to get credit from other agen- 
cies which do not limit the amount discounted or the interest 
rate charged.? 


THE CAPPER-VOLSTEAD ACT, 1922 


While a corporate organization is not adapted to the business of 
farming, it is adapted to the handling and marketing of many or 
all agricultural products. Generally it is only through farmers 
acting together that the advantages which accrue from large scale 
operations can be obtained by them. To secure these advantages 
codperative corporations or associations of farmers have been 
formed in all sections of the country. 

The question of the legal status of these organizations was 
one which soon arose. Although the number of instances in 
which farm organizations have been interfered with on the 
theory that they ran counter to such laws is few, there was 
uncertainty in regard to their legal status. ‘The Clayton Act 
was passed in 1914 and provided that “nothing contained in the 
anti-trust laws shall be construed to forbid the existence and 


Cf. Article on farm credit in the Yearbook of the United States De- 
partment of Agriculture, 1924, 


NaTIONAL AGRICULTURAL LEGISLATION, 1921-1925 99 


operation of labor, agricultural or horticultural organizations 
instituted for the purpose of mutual help and not having capital 
stock or conducted for profit.” ‘Those interested in farm organi- 
zations did not consider this provision sufficiently comprehensive 
and definite to remove all doubt in regard to the legal status of 
farm organizations. Besides, it only covered non-stock farm 
organizations. With a view to establishing the legality of farm 
organizations, whether stock or non-stock, under the anti-trust 
laws, those interested in codperation sponsored a measure which 
was enacted by Congress in February, 1922, and which is known 
as the Capper-Volstead Act. It provides that “persons engaged 
in the production of agricultural products as farmers, planters, 
ranchmen, dairymen, nut or fruit growers may act together in 
associations, corporate or otherwise, with or without capital stock, 
in collectively processing, preparing for market, handling, and 
marketing in interstate and foreign commerce, such products of 
persons so engaged.” 

In order for associations to obtain the benefit of this statute 
they must be operated “for the mutual benefit of the members” 
and they must not pay dividends in excess of 8 per cent per 
annum, or else they must restrict their members to one vote 
regardless of their financial interest in the association. All as- 
sociations desirous of coming under the statute must not handle 
in value more products for non-members than they handle for 
members, ‘The Secretary of Agriculture is given supervisory 
power over all of the associations engaged in interstate commerce 
which come within the terms of the statute and if he has “reason 
to believe that any such association monopolizes or restrains trade 
in interstate or foreign commerce to such an extent that the 
price of any agricultural product is unduly enhanced by reason 
thereof, he shall serve upon such association a complaint stating 
his charge in that respect.” Following a hearing, if the Secre- 
tary concludes that the charges of the complaint have been 
established, the Act provides that he shall issue an order ‘‘direct- 
ing such association to cease and desist from monopolization or 
restraint of the trade.” If the order is not obeyed it devolves 
upon the Department of Justice to enforce it in the courts. 


100 Hanpspook oF RurRAaL SociAL RESOURCES 


THE PACKERS AND STOCKYARDS ACT, 1921 


The producer of beef cattle, of mutton, and of hogs has always 
been at more or less of a disadvantage in marketing his product. 
This was especially true, if, as in the majority of cases, he raised 
his stock far from the market and had to entrust their sale to a 
more or less unknown “commission man.” With a view to pro- 
tecting such producers and increasing their confidence in the 
great livestock markets, Congress passed a law in August, 1921, 
known as the Packers and Stockyards Act. By it the Secretary 
of Agriculture is vested with regulatory authority over packers, 
stockyard owners, market agencies and dealers. Packers and 
commission men who do business in interstate commerce are 
prohibited from engaging in any practices which may be con- 
sidered by the Secretary to be unfair, deceptive, or in restraint 
of trade. The owners of public stockyards must furnish services 
without discrimination and at reasonable rates. (“A stockyard is 
subject to the act if it is a place commonly known as a stockyard 
and conducted for compensation or profit as a public market, 
consisting of pens and enclosures for holding, selling, or ship- 
ment of livestock in interstate commerce, containing an area of 
20,000 square feet or more.) A schedule of such rates must 
always be kept on file with the Secretary. All complaints in 
regard to rates or service should be sent to him. At present 76 
stockyards are administered under this act, at 19 of which 
regular livestock market supervisors are located. In Washington 
the Secretary has at his service a staff of trained specialists and 
administrators in the Packers and Stockyards Administration. 
Besides ensuing fair practices in the public markets this act also 
furnishes an excellent opportunity for the study of livestock 
marketing, which will undoubtedly lead to a better understand- 
ing of the problems and needs of the business. 


THE GRAIN FUTURES ACT, 1922 


The marketing of grain presents, in many ways, problems simi- 
Jar to those in the marketing of live stock. In addition, there 


NaTionaL AGRICULTURAL LEGISLATION, 1921-1925 101 


are special problems growing out of the complicated dealings 
in futures and certain more or less questionable practices con- 
nected therewith. On August 24, 1921, an act was passed which 
prohibited “puts and calls” and similar transactions and gave 
authority to the Secretary of Agriculture to direct certain investi- 
gations into the practices of grain marketing. Other clauses gave 
the Secretary regulatory powers over grain exchanges. ‘These 
last provisions were declared unconstitutional by the Supreme 
Court because enacted under the taxing power of Congress, 
Therefore, that body passed the Grain Futures Act in 1922 
under the interstate commerce power and this act, containing 
practically the same provisions as those previously declared un- 
constitutional, was sustained by the Supreme Court. ‘The Secre- 
tary of Agriculture in administering the Grain Futures Act has 
studied the various factors which produce changes in the grain 
market and has sought to prevent the doing of those things pro- 
hibited by the act without unnecessarily interfering with the 
conduct of the grain exchanges. It is the belief that manipula- 
tion of the market can best be prevented by codperation with the 
boards of trade in charge of the grain exchanges. Practical steps 
are being taken at the present time to bring about such 
codperation. 


THE COTTON STANDARDS ACT, 1923 


The cotton crop of any normal season contains a wide range 
of spinning qualities, which though not readily distinguishable 
by the grower represent nevertheless a wide range of values. It 
is considered fundamental to any program for the improvement 
of marketing methods and practices that there should be some 
fixed and reliable means of identifying and describing these 
qualities. Until this was done there was no assurance of the 
comparability of quotations in various markets, and, furthermore, 
the grower was neither able to interpret and apply quotations nor 
to bargain intelligently. Moreover, without such information 
there was an element of uncertainty in the loan value of cotton 
warehouse receipts. ‘The Warehouse Act of 1916, which under- 


102 Hanpspook oF Rurau SoctaL RESOURCES 


took to improve the quality of warehouse collateral, contemplated 
the use of fixed standards of classification. 

Cotton grading began in Liverpool about 1800, the grades 
being determined until recently almost entirely by cotton dealers. 
Uniform grade names soon became traditional but the quality 
associated with the grades varied widely as between places and 
between producers and manufacturer. ‘This resulted in business 
preferment among dealers who had established with each other 
their ideas of quality, and confusion and uncertainty among 
others. As each buyer would undertake to buy according to the 
system of classification in effect in the market in which he 
sold, there was always the necessity of translating prices and 
qualities in order to arrive at proper quotations, It became evi- 
dent to merchants and brokers as well as to planters, to manu- 
facturers and to bankers that uniform standards would be exceed- 
ingly desirable. 

In 1909 the United States adopted the so-called “permissive 
standards,” recommended but not required for use in cotton ex- 
changes. They were adopted at New York and at New Orleans 
but never received common currency. In 1914 they were re- 
placed by the Official Cotton Standards established under the 
Cotton Futures Act. Finally, the Cotton Standards Act of 
March 4, 1923, made the use of these official standards obliga- 
tory “‘in all spot cotton transactions in interstate and foreign com- 
merce after August 1, 1923.” In June of the same year the 
grade standards were slightly modified in conference with repre- 
sentatives of the European cotton exchanges, after which they 
were adopted under the name “Universal Standards” by all of 
the important exchanges abroad. In international trade the 
effect has been to simplify business and to remove many of the 
causes for disputes which previously existed, thereby to some 
extent reducing the cost of the service between producer and 
consumer.® 


® Cf. A. W. Palmer, The Commercial Classification of Cotton, Department 
Circular 278 of the United States Department of Agriculture. 


NaTIONAL AGRICULTURAL LEGISLATION, 1921-1925 103 


THE BUTTER STANDARD ACT, 1923 


March 4, 1923, was a great day for national agricultural legis- 
lation. Besides the Agricultural Credits and the Cotton Stand- 
ards Bill, the Butter Standard Bill and the Filled Milk Bill also 
became laws on that date. The Government had had conflicting 
rulings as to the definition of butter. The Bureau of Chemistry 
said that butter must contain 8232 per cent pure butter fat. 
It was found, however, that such a proportion of the butter 
analyzed by them was not up to this standard, that it was deemed 
inexpedient to attempt to enforce it. The Bureau of Internal 
Revenue was entrusted with the enforcement of the Adulterated 
Butter Act. This bureau issued a regulation that any butter 
which contained 16 per cent or more of water was adulterated,* 
and collected a tax on all such butter. The act of March 4, 
1923, established an official] standard which superseded both of 
them. It accepted a fat standard but required only 80 per cent 
instead of 8214 per cent. The advantage of one official stand- 
ard over two conflicting ones is obvious. On the other hand, 
the act has certain unfortunate aspects. First, the new ruling 
applies only to butter carried in interstate or foreign commerce 
whereas the ruling of the Bureau of Internal Revenue reached 
all manufacturers of the product in the country. Again, most 
foreign countries have a 16 per cent water standard. Occasion- 
ally when butter contains very little salt it may have over 80 
per cent fat and also more than 16 per cent water. Under such 
circumstances the butter is legal in the United States but not 
legal in countries where the 16 per cent water standard obtains. 
This, of course, is a serious difficulty when the United States 
exports butter to such nations. This factor has not seriously 
injured the industry because our butter export is not large. 


THE FILLED MILK BILL, 1923 


The other act of March 4, 1923, in which we are interested 
was the act “to prohibit the shipment of filled milk in interstate 
*On May 26, 1924, the Supreme Court of the United States held that 


nS alr in question was unauthorized and void; Lynch v. Tilden Co., 


104 HanpBook oF RurRAL SocraL RESOURCES 


and foreign commerce.” ‘The dairymen of the country were 
particularly interested in this legislation. Filled milk is made 
from evaporated skimmed milk, with coconut oil substituted for 
the butter fat. It looks, tastes, and smells the same as ordinary 
evaporated milk despite the difference in its composition. The 
manufacturer lived up to the letter of the law in some cases by 
refraining from the use of the word ‘‘milk” on the label, but 
the retailer often made no discrimination between the substitute 
and the pure evaporated milk product. 


ESTABLISHMENT OF THE BUREAU OF DAIRYING, 1924 


On May 29, 1924, an act was passed creating the Bureau of 
Dairying in the United States Department of Agriculture. Very 
valuable work had been done up to that time in the division of 
dairying while it was part of the Bureau of Animal Industry. 
It was felt, however, that the national importance of dairying 
justified at this time, a separate bureau. 


THE FEDERAL HIGHWAYS ACT, 1921 


Good roads have always been of primary importance to the 
farmer, and in the last few years the increasing use of the auto- 
mobile truck in marketing farm products has made them of 
even greater importance. Modern road improvement followed 
the automobile and has really been making progress for only 
about twenty years. In 1916 the federal government resumed 
its participation in road construction after a lapse of three- 
quarters of a century. In that year the Federal-Aid Road Act 
was passed and the Office of Road Inquiry, changed into the 
Bureau of Public Roads, was given the supervision of the con- 
struction of the federal-aid roads. In 1921 the Federal High- 
way Act was passed which authorized the Secretary of Agricul- 
ture to designate a great nation-wide system of federal-aid high- 
ways, limited in each state to seven per cent of the total mileage 
at the time of the passage of the act, and to be maintained by 
federal expenditure only if the state in which they were located 
refused to do so. 


NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL LEGISLATION, 1921-1925 105 


FREIGHT RATE INVESTIGATIONS, 1925 


In many parts of the country the road haul, by horse or mule 
or auto truck, is only the beginning of a longer journey which 
agricultural products must take before reaching market. In 
such cases freight rates often eat up a large proportion of the 
returns. In 1920 the Interstate Commerce Commission allowed 
a freight rate increase which averaged about 30 per cent for 
the country as a whole. ‘The farmers raised a storm of protest 
and the Commission of Agricultural Inquiry recommended a 
reduction. In 1922 the railroads voluntarily cut their rates 
on farm products about 10 per cent. This did not satisfy the 
agricultural interests and eventually Congress passed, on January 
30, 1925, a resolution directing the Interstate Commerce Com- 
mission to investigate rates for farm products and “‘to effect with 
the least practicable delay such lawful changes in the freight 
structure of the country as will promote the freedom of move- 
ment by common carriers of the products of agriculture affected 
by [the] depression, including livestock, at the lowest possible 
lawful rates compatible with the maintenance of adequate trans- 
portation service.” ‘Two hearings have already been held in 
Chicago and others are to follow soon. 


THE PURNELL ACT, 1925 


Experiment stations were originally established with a view 
to production investigation only. No provision was made for 
work in farm management, marketing, home economics, or rural 
sociology. The Purnell Act gave these research projects a place 
in the work of the stations. ‘The range of their services was 
extended to include the “conducting [of] investigations [in the] 
. . . manufacture, preparation, use, distribution, and marketing 
of agricultural products . . . and such economic and sociological 
investigations as have for their purpose the development and im- 
provement of the rural home and rural life.” ‘To meet the new 
demands on the services of the stations additional appropriations 
were provided: $20,000 for each state for the first year, $30,000 


106 Hanpspook oF RurRau SociAL REsouRCES 


for the second year, $40,000 for the third year, $50,000 for the 
fourth year, and $60,000 for the fifth year and each year 
thereafter. 

A number of bills of more or less local interest have been, 
from time to time, enacted into law. Special relief measures 
have been passed to help drought-stricken farmers in the south- 
western states, extensions of time allowed to settlers to pay in- 
stalments on land purchased from the Government and seed 
loans extended to grain growers in the Northwest. 


XI 


THE COOPERATIVE MARKETING MOVE- 
MENT 


BENSON Y. LANDIS 
Secretary, Rural Research Committee, Federal Council of Churches 


This paper presents a concise appraisal of the codperative 
marketing movement by discussing the extent of organization, the 
main types of associations, the main economic advantages and 
limitations, the social aspects, including the question of a phi- 
losophy of codperation and the problems of social control. 


THE EXTENT OF COOPERATIVE MARKETING 


Fairly extensive statistics on memberships of farmers’ business 
organizations are now available from the division of agricultural 
codperation of the United States Department of Agriculture. 
In a statement of September, 1923, on “Codperation in the 
United States During the Present Decade,” it was said: “‘It is 
estimated that there are now not less than 10,000 local codpera- 
tive organizations in the United States.” Figures were given 
for 22 federations of local associations (a total of 1,482 local 
associations being included in these federations.) The average 
membership of these locals was estimated to be about 40, making 
a total membership of about 400,000. In the same statement 
there were said to be almost half a million members of cotton 
and tobacco associations in the South, organized in state or re- 
gional organizations and probably three hundred thousand mem- 
bers of other regional associations handing wheat, milk, fruits, 
eggs and other products, 

107 


108 HanpsBook oF Rurau SocitaL REsouRCES 


In April, 1925, the division issued another preliminary report 
of the membership of farmers’ business organizations as of Janu- 
ary 1, 1925. Associations of all types and sizes were stated to 
ageregate 10,326, with 2,500,000 members. ‘This was an in- 
crease of 284 per cent in membership over the figure for 1915, 
when the total membership of slightly over 5,000 organizations 
was 651,000. ‘These figures are for buying and selling organi- 
zations, though probably at least nine-tenths are formed for 
selling. ‘There are also obviously some duplications, since many 
farmers are members of more than one organization, though 
the extent of this duplication is not known. It is also unknown 
how many of those listed among the membership actually make 
continuous use of the organizations to which they belong. An 
editor of a prominent Middlewestern agricultural paper once 
told the writer that half of the members of a codperative were 
usually active. A high official of the American Cotton Growers’ 
Exchange—the federation of the state cotton associations of the 
South—stated at the American Institute of Codperation at Phila- 
delphia in July, 1925, that only half of the Southern farmers 
who signed contracts to deliver cotton had for various reasons 
ever delivered any. ‘These testimonies are evidence that the 
“active membership” of our codperative marketing associations is 
considerably less than total figures of the membership lists. 

It also seems fair to state that during the years 1915 to 1923 
there was a very rapid extension of codperative marketing but 
that the years 1924 and 1925 have been times of readjustment. 
There have been some failures of prominent enterprises, a good 
many reorganizations, and many organizations have had great 
difhculty in holding the loyalty of their members, 


TYPES OF COOPERATIVE ORGANIZATIONS 


Coéperative marketing in many parts of the country has often 
been carried on through small associations operating in one com- 
munity. they may usually be called ‘community organiza- 
tions,” and are in many instances successful because they are 
deeply rooted in the social life of the community. They usu- 


THe CoOPERATIVE MarKETING MovEMENT 109 


ally consist of men who know each other well. They are 
formed for the purpose of solving local problems—saving han- 
dling costs, eliminating buyers, local grading, etc. Frequently 
they handle the several products of the community. Sometimes 
they combine a certain amount of buying with selling. The 
manager is usually a farmer. Their success is often due to the 
social and spiritual cohesion of the members. 

But the business advantages of local associations in most cases 
have been few, due to the fact that they handle only a small 
volume of products and are usually unable to apply the most 
eficient methods of distribution. Seldom have they brought 
about any considerable increase in the use of their product. 
Their managers are usually not trained marketers. Organization 
has often been on a loose, insecure basis and, though there are 
no accurate figures, there have been frequent failures among 
local codperative associations. ‘The chief weakness of local asso- 
ciations, however, is that when unfederated, they constantly com- 
pete with one another, are unable to make a united impact upon 
the market, and consequently render only a small service to their 
members. ‘Therefore it has become an axiom in rural economic 
organization that a group of individuals working only in their 
own community, through their local association, cannot greatly 
better their position. This is in conformity with the whole 
trend of rural organization which seems to be toward providing 
definite links between various community organizations and 
county, district, state or national bodies. In economic organi- 
zation centralization is considered especially necessary, however, 
for business efficiency and in order to avoid competition between 
local groups. 

Two general methods for effective centralization have been 
proposed. As an illustration of a federation, which is the 
European and the original American scheme of centralization, 
let us consider briefly the structure of the California Fruit 
Growers’ Exchange, which was formed in 1895 by local asso- 
ciations handling citrus fruit. ‘The individual member is linked 
to the local by contract, the local having in turn a contract 
with the district exchange, and the district with the central 


110 Hanpsook oF RurRAL SoctAL REsouURCES 


organization. ‘The contract of this association happens to be 
for a term of years, but members are allowed any year to cancel, 
after giving due notice. The functions of the local association 
in this organization are to pick, assemble, grade and pack fruit. 
The district exchange further assembles, takes title, stores and 
ships the products. The central exchange advertises, studies 
markets, sells the product as agent, and routes it properly. The 
product in this case remains the property of the district ex- 
change. Both the district and central exchange operate at their 
own costs. ‘The district exchange is financed by stock purchased 
by the locals, the federation by stock purchased by the district 
exchanges. This plan has been widely copied and applied by 
most of the approximately twenty-five federations of local 
associations so far as possible or practicable, though most fed- 
erations do not have the district exchange. It preserves con- 
siderable powers and autonomy for the local group. Its 
advocates feel that it allows for sufficient centralization and 
eficient grading, processing, packing, advertising and selling, 
etc., while at the same time it is built up slowly, with stable 
local groups as a foundation. 

The regional association is a recent American adaptation de- 
signed to achieve quick results and to effect organization of 
large numbers of farmers in a wide area. As an illustration 
of this type, let us consider the structure of the Oklahoma 
Cotton Growers’ Association, which was organized in 1921. In 
this association, the individual signs a contract with the central 
organization. ‘The terms of this contract are such that the 
individual’s important business relations are with the central 
ofice. ‘The contract is for a period of seven years and is non- 
cancellable. In this regional association, the central office 
performs all the functions in the marketing process that are 
distributed among the local, district, and central associations 
in the federated type. Control of all the business operations 
is centralized in this office. Government of the Association 
is by a board of directors; one director is elected by the mem- 
bers in each “voting district.” These voting districts are 
arranged in the region organized according to the amount of 


Tue Co6PpERATIVE MarketTinc MovEMENT 111 


the crop produced. The local associations, when organized, 
perform practically no services in the marketing process, and 
have no powers except to present petitions or give advice to 
the board of directors. ‘They do, however, provide contact 
between directors or employed officers and the membership and 
build up mutual confidence; they are centers for discussion and 
education, assist in enforcing contracts, conduct social activities, 
and thus make for stability of organization. This method pro- 
vides for highly centralized control of crop and credit facilities, 
and of grading and merchandising. 

In general, the contrast between the two main types may be 
summarized as follows: 


FEDERATIONS REGIONAL ASSOCIATIONS 
(1) have been formed slowly; (1) have been formed quickly; 
(2) are the European and orig- (2) are a new American type; 
inal American type; (3) are highly centralized and 
(3) are less centralized and 
(4) fairly democratic; (4) not democratic; 
(5) are built upon existing local (5) are formed for marketing 
organizations; purposes in “one big local”; 
(6) have contracts between a _ (6) have contracts between an 


member and his local; individual and the central 
organization; 
(7) have usually cancellable (7) have long term non-can- 


contracts; cellable contracts; 

(8) use contracts as incidental (8) use contracts as a first 
bonds; bond; 

(9) rely on local opinion, group (9) have relied more largely 
pressure, experience and on legal control. 


non-legal forms of control. 


Within the past few years there have been a few attempts 
at organizing federations quickly. ‘The Minnesota Potato 
Growers Exchange and the Association of Poultry Growers in 
the same state are both federations and have been organized in 
a comparatively short time. ‘There have been and probably 
should be more experiments of this kind in order to see if the 
American desire for speed can be satisfied in the organization 
of a federation. Unsatisfactory results within some of the large 
centralized associations have made such experiments at the 
rapid organization of federations most desirable at this time. 


112 Hanppook oF RuRAL SociAL REsouRCES 


Prof. O. B. Jesness of the University of Kentucky offers the 
following pertinent advice with regard to the adaptability or 
desirability of these two general types under consideration: 
“The decision as to whether the federated or the centralized 
plan should be adopted is deserving of more consideration than 
is involved in questions as to who does the organizing and 
the ease of organization. ‘The commodity itself is entitled to 
the greatest consideration. California oranges present a situa- 
tion where definite locals are highly desirable. Local pools 
are adapted to local variations in the fruit. Local receiving 
facilities take care of the physical handling of the fruit very 
satisfactorily. Place distribution is important in the case of 
oranges. Only limited control can. be exercised over the time 
element in their sale. When we turn to burley tobacco, we 
are confronted with an entirely different set of marketing prob- 
lems. The outlets are concentrated in the hands of a few 
buyers. There is no highly organized market comparable to 
that in the case of wheat, which the organization can follow. 
Large carry-overs from season to season are normal, not excep- 
tional. Time distribution is a big factor in codperative tobacco 
marketing, place distribution is of little importance. Under 
the circumstances, a large association appears essential for 
tobacco. Its holdings need to be administered as a unit. Pool- 
ing needs to be general by crop years because local pools or 
monthly pools are not feasible. While a federation is well 
suited to oranges, the centralized plan is the one for burley 
tobacco. Local codperative creameries and cheese factories make 
highly suitable units in central sales organizations such as the 
Wisconsin Cheese Producers Federation and the Minnesota 
Codperative Creameries Association. The Twin City Milk Pro- 
ducers Association, on the other hand, must handle the problem 
of marketing fluid milk in Minneapolis and St. Paul as a unit, 
and turns no milk marketing activities over to locals.’ + 


1 Journal of Farm Economics, July, 1925. 


THe Co6pERATIVE Markxetinc MovEMENT 113 


ACCOMPLISHMENTS AND LIMITATIONS 


Mr. E. E. Miller, editor of the Southern A griculturist has 
summed up the development of codperative marketing as fol- 
lows: ‘‘Codperative marketing is being developed in the hope 
of lessening the too great cost of distribution; but codperative 
marketing systems that really cut distribution costs cannot yet 
be said to have been established. ‘They are only being de- 
veloped; and the farmer has certainly not yet adjusted himself 
to the demands of codperation.” ‘Theodore Macklin, pro- 
fessor of marketing at the Wisconsin College of Agriculture, 
has thus described the benefits of a well organized codperative: 
“Codperation gives codperating farmers the net profits of mar- 
keting; reduces the cost of marketing so far as this may be 
done; improves old and creates new marketing services for its 
members; readjusts standards of production; gives farmers con- 
fidence in the marketing system because they own it and control 
its policies; develops leadership; has taught codperators the 
commercial point of view.” Professor Macklin comes to these 
conclusions after intensive study of codperative marketing in all 
parts of the United States and other countries. 

He points out, however, that the “‘net profit of marketing 
is the least important reason for codperating. It amounts in 
the cheese business, one of the best available examples, to one 
cent for each dollar’s worth of cheese sold.” He also states 
that reduction of the cost of marketing is much more impor- 
tant, and that “‘codperative cheese marketing has already reduced 
marketing costs by four cents on each dollar’s worth of cheese 
sold. ‘This suggests that the lowering of market costs through 
codperation is four times as important as trying to get middle- 
man’s net profit. . . . Codperative companies have not obtained 
this benefit quickly. It has been slow work.” 

One of the noteworthy things about the codperative market- 
ing movement is that we have very little accurate information 
as to how great a factor it has been in increasing prices, when 
these have increased after the association has functioned. 
Macklin says: “Taken together, the ordinary marketing profits, 


114 Hanppook oF RurRAL SociaL RESOURCES 


the savings through lower operating costs, and the higher prices, 
obtained by rendering more pleasing and effective service, are 
the three proved sources of financial benefit through codpera- 
tion. They are the means of gaining the larger farm price 
which makes codperation worth practising. In the highly- 
developed, older codperative systems, money rewards of these 
three kinds have been received in greater or lesser degree. In 
some of the matured cases, perhaps as much as one-quarter of 
the sustained price paid farmers is directly the result of suc- 
cessful codperation. ‘That prices are greatly improved in these 
ways is positive. On the other hand, farm prices are not per- 
manently doubled or trebled by codperation. In fact, all who 
preach codperation and leave the impression that it can quickly 
and permanently raise prices more than 25 per cent should be 
called upon for full information and proof as to how their 
assurances may be brought into practical-reality. ‘This sugges- 
tion is made not to belittle codperation but rather to stimulate 
that degree of sober judgment which is required to make 
codperative organizations grow and succeed.” ? 

It is a very difficult matter in many cases to isolate the factor 
of codperative association in influencing price levels. ‘There 
are probably instances where prices in a certain crop area would 
have increased anyway after the recent depression, because of 
other factors, if a codperative had not been organized, and yet 
the fact that prices increased after codperative organization is 
used by promoters as an argument to justify the codperative’s 
existence. For example, the price of a certain grade of wool 
was 2314 cents per pound in August, 1921. It increased to 
491% cents in August, 1925. During that time there was a 
considerable development of codperative wool marketing which 
undoubtedly affected the prices. During the same time there 
were also tariff adjustments, changes in fashions and in demand. 
Analysis of price levels is a very complex matter and speaking 
generally, long time trends of prices of some commodities 
handled to a large extent by codperatives have probably as yet 
been very little affected by these organizations. 


2 Annals of January, 1925, 


THe Co6PpERATIVE Marxetinc MovEMENT 115 


It must also be noted that codperative marketing succeeds best 
when accompanied by other favorable economic factors, It is 
most effective as a technique when there are certain conditions 
and is not effective when those conditions are not present. High 
quality and standardized production has been a big factor mak- 
ing for the success of the Danish bacon and butter associations. 
Lack of standardized, high quality production has largely ac- 
counted for the lack of success of the Irish butter codperatives, 
compared with those of Denmark. As long as several of the 
California codperatives handling fruits could increase consump- 
tion in domestic markets by extensive advertising they pros- 
pered, but when production overtook the absorbing power of 
the markets, they immediately were in difficulties. A good 
marketing system will never be of much help to a poor farm 
manager. Guidance of production, control over credit facilities, 
economical purchasing, all help a sales organization. Up to 
this time the codperative marketing movement has not been 
properly geared into a rounded program for agricultural de- 
velopment. We have been assured, for instance, that “farmers 
must rely upon codperative marketing and upon nothing else.” 
Some codperative marketing leaders have in the past talked 
about nothing but codperative marketing. We have been 
solemnly assured that farmers are exploited as sellers by our 
present distribution system. If that is true, then it must follow 
that farmers are at least to some extent also exploited as buyers, 
yet we have as yet no all-around program providing for codpera- 
tive credits, production, buying and selling. 

THE SOCIAL ASPECTS OF COOPERATIVE MARKETING 

So far as relations with the rural community are concerned, 
our organizations in the United States for the most part do not 
assume responsibility for other than economic activities, in 
which respect they differ from rural codperatives in Ireland, 
Russia, Germany, Finland and other countries. They are busi- 
ness organizations, A small proportion of local associations have 
carried on some social activities. Four regional associations— 
The New York Dairymen’s League, the Burley Tobacco 


Growers Association and the associations among tobacco and 


116 HaANnpDBooK OF RuRAL SoctaAL RESOURCES 


cotton growers of North Carolina have been carrying on very 
significant community work among the families of members. A 
small proportion of associations are thus attempting a direct 
contribution. 

Our most important consideration is the indirect relationship 
which it is alleged does or will exist between highly developed 
codperative marketing associations and the social—that is, non- 
economic—institutions. It has been said: Give the farmers 
more money through codperative marketing and you will have 
more money for schools, recreation, religious organizations, For 
the past six years I have taken that claim of codperative mar- 
keting leaders to sociologists, economists, educators, religious 
leaders and social workers and have found them divided in 
their views about the matter. Some accept the claim uncritically 
but a majority of those with whom I have talked are not 
inclined to regard the claim with much seriousness. ‘The main 
arguments against it have been given to me as follows: ‘‘We 
do not yet know much about the relations of one rural institu- 
tion to another.” ‘The whole matter is just a claim or wishful 
thinking. We have no documents, no studies to show us that 
codperative marketing has resulted in a higher standard of 
living even in the highly developed sections of California.” 
“Wise consumption has not as yet been taught and how can we 
know whether farmers, if they have a higher net income, really 
use it to better their living standards.” ‘High incomes heve 
usually gone into increased capitalization of land values rather 
than into bettering living standards. We need social control 
over land values as well as highly developed codperative 
marketing.” 

The whole matter has been summarized by M. L. Wilson in 
a paper on “Farmers’ Incomes and Standards of Living from 
the Economic Viewpoint,” read before the rural sociologists 
and economists at their meeting in Chicago in December, 1924: 
“To what extent do farmers, as a class, benefit from higher 
incomes, as we have more or less assumed? ‘This is the crux 
of the whole matter under discussion. Doctor Henry C. Taylor 
answers this question by saying that it all depends on how the 


Tue CodPpERATIVE MarKETING MovEMENT hiv 


income is used. As a matter of fact, there are only three 
possible ways it can be used. (1) Increased income can be 
put back into the farm business, into better instruments and 
methods of production, and more efficient marketing. But if 
in so doing the farmer, in his reaction to price stimulus, in- 
creases the supply in relation to demand—thus reducing the 
price to the consumer—the entire benefits will pass over to the 
consumer and at the end of the cycle the farmer will find him- 
self as bad off as when he started. (2) It can be used in a 
competitive scramble for land, thus bidding up the price and 
capitalizing future land income to such a point that those 
farmers who purchase land under such conditions, in order to 
keep going, must reduce their standard of living to a low level. 
(3) It can be used to maintain higher standards of living.” * 
Thus I should say we are forced to conclude that in view 
of the evident limitations of codperative marketing alone as a 
technique for increasing incomes, leaders of rural social life 
should not place much dependence upon extravagant claims as 
to what codperative marketing will do for social development. 
It seems evident to me, however, that there are great possi- 
bilities in the teaching of wise consumption and in the 
development of ideas among rural people as to what a really 
high standard of living is or as to what a satisfying life on 
the land is, so that when increased incomes are achieved through 
economic techniques they can be translated into social enrichment. 
A further fact that needs to be understood in appraising 
codperative marketing in the United States is the wide diver- 
gence between the philosophy held by a large majority of the 
leaders of the farmers’ associations and that which characterized 
the historic movement of consumers’ codperation. The farmers 
propose no such a widespread reorganization of capitalism as is 
contemplated in the elaborate scheme of consumers’ codpera- 
tion. ‘The codperative marketing movement has offered a 
method of dealing with certain distribution problems; it has not 
proposed an extended plan for the social control of wealth. The 
leaders of the marketing movement have thus won a degree of 


% Journal of Farm Economics, July, 1925. 


118 Hanppook oF RurRAL SoctaL REsoURCES 


approval among conservative financiers which has not been ac- 
corded the protagonists of consumers’ codperation in this country. 

Managers of codperative marketing enterprises are forever up 
against the problem of maintaining the goodwill of their mem- 
bers. The original American and the European method of 
maintaining control was through the federation idea—of relying 
upon education, years of experience, community pressure and 
the development of social ethics—plus a legal contract—to hold 
the group together. With the development of the regional 
idea, come new ideas of social control. It was alleged by the 
organizers of the regional associations that the federation plan 
was too slow; that one way to achieve centralization was to have 
a long-term non-cancellable contract rather than the one-year 
or cancellable contract which has distinguished the federation, 
but after operating a few years many of these regional associa- 
tions have had to introduce other than business contacts between 
members and management and to rely on other ways of develop- 
ing loyalty. There have been waves of contract breaking 
because of disloyalty. Members have lacked information about 
their association and have simply ignored their contracts. Con- 
certed propaganda by business interests has aroused suspicions 
and dissatisfaction. Crop mortgages have prevented the delivery 
of much cotton and tobacco in the South. ‘They were perhaps 
the chief factor influencing the fifty per cent of the members 
of Southern cotton associations who failed to deliver any cotton 
on their contracts. It is acknowledged pretty universally that 
legal control when largely relied upon to hold farmers together 
is a failure; that non-legal forms of control are more important 
and must be mainly relied upon for organization stability. 


XII 
FARM CREDIT AND FARM TAXATION 


NORMAN J. WALL 
United States Department of Agriculture 


THE DEMAND FOR MORE CAPITAL AND THE AGENCIES 
SUPPLYING IT 


Developments in agriculture in the last decade have created 
a greater demand for capital to finance the individual farm unit. 
Rising land values, the wider use of improved farm machinery, 
higher labor costs, etc., all have tended to increase the need of 
the farmer for larger amounts of both fixed and working capital. 
As the credit requirements of farmers increased, it became 
apparent that the existing financial agencies were not in a posi- 
tion adequately to meet the legitimate needs of the industry. 

The establishment of the Federal Land Bank System in 
1914 was the first step in attempting to reach a solution of 
the problem. Based largely on the principles found at work 
in European credit institutions, it mobilized the credit of the 
country and provided facilities for long-term farm mortgage 
loans on the amortization plan. ‘This system offered a solution 
for only a part of the credit difficulty, however, inasmuch as 
the farmer was still handicapped in securing proper accommo- 
dation for production and marketing credit. This handicap 
was particularly in evidence in the readjustment period fol- 
lowing the World War, when country banks were unable to cope 
with the situation as a result of their inability to liquidate farm 
paper. 

In an effort to lessen the credit strain in the agricultural 
regions, Congress adopted an emergency measure, whereby new 

119 


120 Hanpgpook oF Rurat SociaAL RESOURCES 


life was given to the War Finance Corporation, an organization 
born out of the wartime need for financing our exports. ‘This 
agency, loaning its funds to codperative marketing associations, 
livestock loan companies, and banking institutions, advanced a 
total of $287,739,668.06 for agricultural purposes. In addi- 
tion, a considerable sum was advanced on agricultural products 
in export trade. 

The extent to which the War Finance Corporation was called 
upon to assist country banks in carrying their agricultural paper 
demonstrated that there was no adequate provision for handling 
on a stable basis certain types of production and marketing 
credit. As a result, there arose a demand for a permanent 
agency that could supply the farmer with an intermediate term 
of credit, that is, loans maturing within six months to three 
years. In an effort to meet this demand, Congress passed the 
agricultural credits act of 1923, which provided for Federal 
Intermediate Credit Banks to be established in each of the 
twelve Federal Land Bank Districts. In the meantime, also, 
certain of the states, notably South Dakota, North Dakota and 
Minnesota, had set up machinery to provide mortgage credit to 
farmers. 

That the new credit agencies have assumed an important 
role in meeting agricultural credit needs is evidenced by the 
volume of loans granted to farmers. ‘The Federal Land Banks, 
from their organization to September 30, 1925, had made 
370,876 loans for a total amount of $1,139,627,799, and the 
Joint Stock Land Banks, which are privately operated stock 
organizations working under practically the same regulations as 
the Federal Land Banks, had made 78,293 loans for a total 
amount of $592,010,240 during the same period. ‘The Fed- 
eral Land Banks are now loaning their funds to farmers at 
a rate varying from 5 to 514 per cent, exclusive of the amor- 
tization payments. The rate charged by Joint Stock Land 
Banks varies from 514 to 6 per cent. 

The Federal Intermediate Credit Banks, which have been in 
operation only since 1923, carried loans in the following amounts 
on September 26, 1925: 


Farm CreEpIT AND Farm ‘T'axaTION 121 


Rediscounts from agricultural credit corporations.. $20,466,750.20 
Rediscounts from livestock loan companies ....... 10,100,783.67 
Rediscounts from banking institutions ............ 618,665.18 
Direct loans to codperative marketing organizations 31,649,500.25 


Loans made directly to marketing organizations through Inter- 
mediate Credit Banks are now being granted at a rate of 4%4 
to 5 per cent, while rediscounts submitted by agricultural credit 
corporations, livestock loan companies, and banking institutions 
have been accepted on a basis of 5 to 5% per cent. 

Country banks, however, remain the main source of credit 
for the American farmer, Based on a credit survey conducted 
by the Department of Agriculture in 1924, it is estimated that 
on December 31, 1923, banks had advanced loans to farmers in 
the amount of $4,331,924,000. Of this sum, $2,943,818,000 
was advanced on personal and collateral security, and $1,388,- 
106,000 on real estate security. The average interest on per- 
sonal and collateral loans, for the country as a whole, was 
found to be 7.7 per cent, and the prevailing interest rate on 
farm mortgage loans held by banks, 6.9 per cent. 

Another important source of credit for the farmer is the 
life insurance companies, from which have been advanced over 
$1,000,000,000 on farm lands. Figures based on the reports 
of 41 companies, having 82 per cent of the admitted assets of 
all life insurance companies, give the amount invested in farm 
mortgages on August 31, 1925, as $1,510,000,000. 

Much progress, in short, has been made in the last decade 
in improving the credit position of the farmer. ‘There are 
many phases of the problem which are not entirely satisfactory, 
however, and there are many areas where farmers are handi- 
capped in meeting their financial requirements. This is par- 
ticularly true in the South where merchant credit and high 
interest rates still persist, and tenants and small operators find 
the cost of short-time loans very high. Many sections of the 
range country and other areas where the resources of the local 
banks are not adequate are also in need of improved loan 
facilities. 


122 HanpgBpook oF RurRAL SociaL RESOURCES 


TAXATION PROBLEMS 


In any discussion of the farmer’s economic position in the 
post-war period, the problem of his tax burden must assume 
importance. With the rapid decline in the price of farm 
products, the farmer found his income seriously impaired and 
in many instances wiped out entirely. In the face of this loss 
of income, he was in most cases confronted with a large in- 
crease in taxes. Having no relationship: to his receipts, being 
a flat charge upon his earnings, these taxes have been a heavy 
burden. 

The increased tax burden has resulted in part from a change 
in the level of prices, but it is also a result of the expanded 
program of highway, educational and social service activities. 
This expansion and expenditure has been financed largely 
through the general property tax levied by state and local gov- 
ernments. Inasmuch as the great bulk of farm taxes are 
property taxes, this increase is of direct concern to the farmer. 
It is estimated that farm property taxes have mounted from 
$344,000,000 in 1914 to $845,000,000 in 1923, an increase 
of 146 per cent in ten years. ‘Taxes on farm lands are esti- 
mated to have averaged 69 cents per acre for the entire country 
in 1923. New Jersey farms were taxed at an average rate of 
$2.22 per acre in that year; the average for Indiana was $1.60 
per acre; Michigan, $1.58; and for Iowa, $1.49. 

The problem of easing the farmer’s tax burden is one that 
presents a great many difficulties. In many instances, it will be 
almost impossible for him to lighten the burden where he is 
already committed to bonded indebtedness which will be a 
fixed charge on his income for years to come. ‘The extent to 
which governmental units have thus mortgaged their future 
incomes has assumed considerable proportion, as the following 
figures will disclose: 


ToTaL Net DEBT, PERCENT OF INCREASE, 1912-227 


tO ROR ssh dp atict aa nad Mk ala a 170.4 
COUNEIER 0 Cain b ree hun Er cavers 242.6 
Other’ Civil ‘Divisions? (4) 05. 709.9 


1 Financial Statistics of States, 1923—U. S. Census Bureau. 
4Not including incorporated places, which increased 63.0%. 


Farm Crepit AND Farm TAxATION 123 


The increase for “Other Civil Divisions” is particularly sig- 
nificant because it represents the increase of the small civil units, 
such as township and school districts with which the farmer is 
most directly concerned. In such instances where the local 
debt has reached high proportions, the farmer’s possibility of 
relief is practically limited to the prevention of unwise com- 
mitments in the future. 

A phase of the problem, however, which might be given 
careful consideration by the farmer in adjusting his taxation 
difficulties is that of a more equitable distribution of the tax 
burden. ‘The last few years have witnessed a greatly expanded 
program of expenditure for highways and education, which, 
though of considerable local importance, are becoming more and 
more a state-wide development. ‘The expenditures for public 
schools, public roads and many other functions now performed 
by the local civil governments are really of more importance 
outside the local districts than our methods of financing them 
would indicate, and it would seem to be more equitable that 
a portion of this cost should be borne by the central government. 
The tendency of state governments to lay down minimum re- 
quirements in various activities, as, for example, education, 
frequently results in unjust tax distribution, While entirely 
fair and just to a large part of the state, there are many areas 
of sparse population and little development where maintenance 
of these requirements entails a severe burden. As many of 
these regulations are enacted with the welfare of the state as 
a whole in mind, it would seem only just and fair that their 
financing should be distributed in an equitable manner over the 
whole state. 

It is possible that in many localities there will be relief for 
the individual farmer through a careful reconsideration of 
assessment methods. With many thousand assessors making 
assessments within their individual taxing units, it is natural 
that inequities are found. Inasmuch as many of these injustices 
remain undetected in spite of the most conscientious effort of 
reviewing boards to rectify them, it becomes apparent that the 
problem must be approached from the angle of securing more 


124 HanpBook oF RuRAL SociAL REsouRCES 


uniform returns in the original assessments. ‘To achieve this, it 
has been suggested that the state tax commissions and others 
charged with the responsibility of securing fair assessments be 
given a greater degree of control over the personnel employed 
and the methods used in making the original assessments. At 
present, boards of review are usually provided for adjusting 
differences which occur between units of property within the 
same class and taxpayers have the privilege of appearing before 
these bodies. A more general usage of this right would bring 
some degree of relief in individual cases. 

Because of the rapid decline which has taken place in farm 
land values in many states rural real estate is being over-assessed. 
The farmers in lowa, for example, gathered data as to the sales 
values of city and farm property, which showed that the latter 
was greatly over-assessed. ‘They presented the results of their 
survey to the State Board of Equalization and secured a reduc- 
tion in farm land assessments of $292,115,845, and the valua- 
tion of livestock was cut $59,574,931 below the 1923 figure. 
Somewhat similar results are being achieved in other states as 
well. 

Property listed for general property taxation is supposed to 
be assessed at its full sales or cash value, or at some specified 
percentage of that value. However, there are great differences 
in the returns from equal investments in different classes of 
property, and it is certain that a tax which. is levied uniformly 
on capital values will be far from a uniform tax on the earning 
power of the respective classes of property. Farm property 
is especially subject to a high tax in proportion to its producing 
capacity, inasmuch as its average rate of return is generally quite 
low. In certain states tax officials take into consideration the 
earning power of public utilities and railroads in arriving at a 
fair valuation for assessment. A more general consideration of 
this principle in assessing farm property would result in more 
equitable taxation. 

However, it is logical to expect that farm taxation will prob- 
ably remain chiefly a local problem under any system of taxa- 
tion which may be adopted. The bulk of expenditure is for 


Farm Crepit AND Farm ‘TAXATION 125 


local purposes, and it will be necessary for the individual com- 
munity to decide just what it can afford in the way of education, 
road facilities, and other local public services. At the same 
time, there is no doubt room for economy through reorgan- 
ization of local governmental machinery, improved methods of 
purchasing, budget control, etc. The successful methods of 
economically managed units could be studied to advantage and 
applied to fit the needs of each local governmental organization. 
The policy of economy in governmental activities of local tax- 
ing units should recommend itself to all farmers, and especially 
to those living in the more agricultural states, where the small 
proportion of non-agricultural wealth will make it certain that 
the farmers will pay the bulk of all taxes levied. 


XItt 


AGRICULTURAL PRODUGHION; PRICES 
AND INCOME 1919-1925 * 


L. H. BEAN 


Division of Statistical and Historical Research, United States 
Department of Agriculture 


Outstanding among recent trends in the agricultural situa- 
tion in the United States is the slow but gradual improvement 
from the post-war depression of 1921-22. A substantial re- 
covery in the economic position of the average American farmer 
has been accomplished during the past three years largely as a 
result of the considerable recovery in prices of farm products. 
The progress has been toward a more equitable relation between 
the prices of farm products and the general price level, and, 
particularly, between the prices received by farmers and those 
of the goods farmers buy. ‘The improvement in prices and 
income, however, has not been uniform throughout the agri- 
cultural regions. First, after the drastic decline in commodity 
values in 1920-21, sheep and wool prices recovered. Cotton 
producers were the next to experience recovery, in 1922-23. 
In 1924, wheat and corn prices rose from their prolonged period 
of depression and, during 1925, hog and cattle values made 
substantial gains. The dairy and poultry producers did not 
suffer such drastic declines in the value of their products and 
have consequently had a less rapid rise in income. 

The net effect of the successive rises in farm prices has 
been to produce a marked change in income from agricultural 


1 All data used here, unless otherwise indicated, are taken from (1) Year- 
book of the Department of Agriculture, 1924, (2) Supplement to The Agri- 
cultural Situation, June, 1925, and later issues, and (3) Supplement to Crops 
and Markets, July, 1925. 


126 


AGRICULTURAL PropucTion, PricEs AND IncomE 127 


production. In the following table are shown the effects of 
the price depression on both gross and net income from agri- 
cultural production. Gross income declined from nearly 16 
billion dollars in 1919-20 to 9 billion in 1921-22. Since then, 
over a period of four years, it has returned to 12 billion dollars, 
or an increase of 3 billion compared with the preceding drop 
of 7 billion. Net income declined nearly 5 billion and, since 
1921-22, increased approximately 2 billion. 


INCOME FROM AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION 


YEAR GROSS INCOME NET INCOME* 
1,000,000 1,000,000 
dollars dollars 
1919-20 15,719 8,181 
1920-21 12,668 4,642 
1921-22 9,214 3,499 
1922-23 10,366 4,518 
1923-24 11,288 4,925 
1924-25 12,136 5,650 


1 Available for the investment, management and labor of 6,448,000 farmers 
and their families. 


It is the purpose of this paper to review the recent changes 
both in production and in price of the major farm products 
which are responsible for this improvement in the farmer’s 
income; to indicate the effect of the improvement on the rela- 
tion of prices received by farmers to prices paid for their 
purchases, and on the average reward per farmer for his labor, 
the acreage devoted to the leading crops does, however, indicate 
some of the factors in the immediate outlook for agricultural 
prices and income. 

Agriculture will here be dealt with largely on a national 
basis. ‘The relative position of the several distinct agricultural 
sections, which in a more detailed discussion would require 
special treatment, will merely be indicated through reference 
to the major farm products as regards production, prices, and 
income derived. Furthermore, this statement is limited to the 
outstanding changes in production, prices, and income, since 


128 Hanppook oF RurRaAL SociAL REsouRCES 


it is the recent changes in these which account for the partial 
emergence of agriculture from the effects of a prolonged de- 
pression. Numerous other factors there have been, among them 
more economical production, better farm management prac- 
tices, codperative marketing, better credit facilities, a high state 
of industrial activity, employment and wages, and the recovery 
in European buying power, but from a national viewpoint the 
story of the present agricultural situation can be simply told in 
terms of gross and net income derived from the production and 
sale of farm products, and the standard of living for which 
that net income will provide. 


AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION SINCE 1919 


The extent of the recovery in agricultural prices and income 
may be best understood from a review of the chief factors that 
have contributed toward that improvement and, inasmuch as 
income arises from the production and sale of farm products, 
we will consider first the readjustment that agriculture as a 
whole has made (a) in the acreage planted in crops, (b) in 
the number of livestock retained on farms for productive pur- 
poses, and (c) in the annual physical output of crops and live- 


TABLE I 
CROP ACREAGES IN THE UNITED STATES 


Total 

Year Wheat!|] Corn Oats Rye | Cotton|P’tatoes| Hay (19 
crops) 

Million| Million | Million] Million | MiJlion| Million | Million | Million 

acres | acres | acres | acres | acres | acres | acres | acres 





Average 
1909-13 52 104 37 2.2 34 3.7 67 301? 

L919 Geese 77 97 40 6.3 34 $5 74 352 
LOZ Ms 66 102 42 4.4 36 3.7 74 345 
RO iids ahs 66 104 45 4.5 31 3.9 74 346 
pb Py a ae 68 103 41 6.7 33 4.3 77 348 
Le Mi Nghe 66 104 41 5.2 37 3.8 15 349 
bee. ae tel 58 105 42 4.2 41 ee | 76 349 
WAS its sie 64 107 44 4.2 44 3.5 75 


1 Acreage sown. 2 Year 1909 ? Preliminary estimates 


AGRICULTURAL PRopucTION, PRicEs AND INcomE 129 


stock, The total acreage in crops has remained practically 
constant during the past six years, indicating that the extent 
of farm lands devoted to crop production has not been affected 
materially by the prolonged depression. An examination of 
the acreages devoted to the leading crops does, however, indicate 
that a considerable adjustment has been accomplished in acreage 
devoted to wheat, particularly in the spring wheat areas, In 
1924, the total wheat area seeded was reduced by 8 million acres 
as a result of the very low prices in 1923. Although between 
1920 and 1923, inclusive, there was very little change in the 
wheat area, individual farmers made adjustments in crop enter- 
prises in favor of crops not suffering from surplus production. 
In the spring wheat areas, a campaign urging farmers to diversify 
has resulted in the planting of more rye and flax and less 
wheat. In the winter wheat states larger areas were sown in 
wheat in 1921 and 1922 in spite of depressed prices. In 1923 
and particularly in 1924, the low prices finally led to a con- 
siderable reduction in winter wheat seeding. ‘The areas devoted 
to feed crops, corn, oats and hay, have been maintained rather 
constantly at 1919 and 1920 levels in face of ruinously low 
prices. Cotton, also, with the exception of 1921 and 1922, 
has been planted more extensively than during the two years 
before the price depression. 

The fact that there has been no important reduction in 
acreage except in the wheat belt is of course no indication of 
the extent to which the individual farmers have shifted their 
enterprises from the less to the more profitable crops, or have 
entered upon diversified farming. A reduction in crop acreage 
by one farmer may be accompanied by the inclusion of that 
crop in the program of another farmer, so that the maintenance 
of the war-time acreages of corn, oats and hay may be indi- 
cative of the need of these feed crops by farmers who have 
diversified by including livestock and poultry in their programs. 

That farmers have to some extent in the past six years engaged 
in diversification as a means of increasing their incomes can 
be deduced from the following data on the number of animals 
on farms: : 


130 Hanpgpook oF RuRAL SociaAL REsouRCES 


TABLE II 
NUMBER OF ANIMALS ON FARMS JANUARY 1 


Beef Dairy 


Year ONE PES Sheep Hogs Poultry 
Millions | Millions | Millions | Millions | Millions 
Average 
1909-1300 1% 40.7 20.9 53.2 60.9 
RPT hs Mica peter 45.1 23.5 48.9 74.6 
A920 ouch aay 43.4 23.7 39.0 59.3 373 
Al AoA UA gy 42.0 23.6 37.5 56.1 371 
A922 ee Cie 42.0 24.1 36.2 58.3 423 
LOZ Siena re oes 42.8 24.4 37.2 68.4 440 
LOZA noel leg 41.7 24.8 38.3 66.1 488 
pa PA Bard Ata ie 39.6 25:3 39.1 54.2 443 


1 Preliminary estimates. 


The low prices of beef cattle that have prevailed since the 
beginning of the depression are largely responsible for the de- 
crease in their number from 43.4 million in 1920 to 39.6 million 
in 1925. During the same period there has been an increase 
of 1.6 million in the number of dairy cows and 70 million 
head of poultry. Since January, 1922, there has also been an 
increase of nearly 3 million sheep on farms. ‘These increases 
in the numbers of dairy cows, sheep and poultry are evidences 
of diversification in farm enterprises brought about by the 
relatively high prices of dairy and poultry products, lambs and 
wool, and low prices of grains, beef cattle and hogs. ‘The 
explanation of the increase in the number of hogs from 56.1 
million in 1921 to 68.4 million in 1923, and 66.1 million 
in 1924, is to be found not in profitable hog prices but in 
cheap corn due to large corn crops in 1921, 1922, and 1923, 
more than 80 per cent of which must be disposed of by feeding 
to livestock, With a short crop and high prices of corn in 
1924, the number of hogs on farms January 1, 1925, was 
reduced nearly 12 million. 

The deliberate adjustments in crop acreages have naturally 
affected the volume of crop production. However, upon ex- 


AGRICULTURAL PropucTION, Prices AND Income 131 


amination it will be found that in the main the yearly crop 
output is controlled by the uncertain dispensations of nature. 
In some cases deliberate reduction from war-time acreages has 
been offset by unexpectedly high yields; in others, increases 
in acreages have been accompanied by disappointingly low 
yields. In general, it may be said that, from the beginning of 
the depression, grain and feed crops have been large and have 
helped to keep grain and feed prices relatively low. The 
annual production of the major crops is shown in the table 
below. 
TaBLe III 
CROP PRODUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES 





Index 
of pro- 
Year Wheat | Corn Oats Rye | Cotton|P’tatoes| Hay PE | 
of 10 
crops 
Million] Million | Million] Million | Million |Million | Million] Per c’nt 
bushels|bushels |bushels|bushels| bales |bushels} tons 





Average - 

1909-13. | 690 | 2,712] 1,143} 36 | 13.0 | 358 82 100 
vt NA SO AY ye 970 | 2,811} 1,184] 75 11.4 | 323 105 110 
1920 45.5 «ss 833 | 3,209) 1,496 60 13.4 | 403 105 120 
UPA Rae abiean 815 | 3,069] 1,078] 62 8.0 | 362 98 103 
122 heats 868 | 2,906] 1,216} 103 9.8 | 453 112 113 
D923 Wee os 4970 03,053 & 15306 63 10.1 | 416 107 113 
1 BUA Bea Pe 873 | 2,436) 1,542 63 13.6 | 455 112 117 
pd eae 697 | 3,013] 1,470 52 15.4 | 347 98 109 


1 Preliminary estimate, November 9. 


Wheat production, in spite of reduced acreage, has remained 
well above the pre-war average of 690 million bushels. As a 
result of low wheat prices in 1922 and 1923, wheat acreage 
sown in 1923 was reduced to 58 million, the lowest since 1919. 
An unusually high yield of 16.1 bushels per acre produced a 
crop of 873 million bushels in 1924. However, acreage was 
increased to 64 million but the outturn of the crop is officially 
estimated at 697 million bushels. Fortunately, in 1924, a 
shortage in the world wheat crop produced a rise in wheat prices 


132 HanpBpook oF RuRAL SoctAL REsouURCES 


and American farmers were able to realize satisfactory returns 
for a large crop. 

The corn crop during the past six years has been more defi- 
nitely subject to variations in yields than to acreage. Since 
1920, farmers have planted a fairly uniform acreage, ranging 
from 102 million acres in 1920 to 105 million in 1924, and 107 
in 1925, but yields have been above average with the result that 
all of the post-war crops, except in 1924, have been large and 
have affected corn prices adversely up to the fall of 1924. 

Similarly with oats production, low yields in 1920 and 1921 
resulted in crops close to the pre-war average of somewhat over 
one billion bushels, although the acreages in these two years 
were 42 and 45 million, respectively, compared with 37 million 
acres in 1909-1913. ‘The oat crops of 1923, 1924 and 1925 
have been large, although acreage has changed but little. As in 
the case of wheat, oats prices, since 1921, have been depressed 
by large supplies. 

The production of hay has also been maintained at a high 
level, exceeding both war-time and pre-war averages, this in view 
of the decreasing number of horses on farms. Prices have con- 
sequently remained close to pre-war levels during the past four 
years. 

In the case of cotton, on the other hand, short crops in 1921 
and 1922, due to low yields per acre more than to a reduction 
in acreage, were largely responsible for the quick recovery in 
cotton prices. Since 1921, acreage has been gradually expanded 
but not until 1924 and 1925 have large crops been picked. A 
13 million bale crop reduced cotton prices from an average of 
29 to 23 cents per pound, and the enormous 1925 crop, esti- 
mated at more than 15 million bales, has further depressed the 
price below 20 cents. 

The trends in the production of animals and animal products 
since the beginning of the price depression reveal as out- 
standing the fact that the large feed crops of 1921, 1922 and 
1923 produced large numbers of hogs and cattle which, in turn, 
retarded the recovery of hog and cattle prices. ‘These trends are 
adequately summarized in the following table on animals 


AGRICULTURAL PRopucTion, PricEs AND INcomE 133 


slaughtered under federal inspection, which constitute about 75 
per cent of the total number annually marketed. 


TABLE IV 
NUMBER OF MEAT ANIMALS SLAUGHTERED UNDER FEDERAL INSPECTION 


Cattle and 


Year cies Sheep Hogs 
Millions Millions Millions 

Average 1909513) sive .).35 9.6 12.8 32.1 
PUL OPER Me wa vale weidic oa bee 4 14.9 11.3 44.4 
1 Ne Cf ea a Ta ik rh aia 13.9 12.3 39.0 
R202 Mei ee aan she's els ee 12.1 12.5 37.7 
Ba Se een Gale huss ewe 6 11.8 12.0 39.4 
LY ZaeE Sia viaetesialsi ele vias e's, ¢ 13.4 11.4 48.6 
DOS HZA WMD iy ot ule ed ote wie’ ¥¢ 13.9 11.5 54.4 
DRS at NC IAbtL Ts ‘a y,4 ate) © 14.8 12.2 48.5 


The plentiful supply of feed crops coincides with the upward 
trend in cattle and hog production which began immediately 
after the price decline of 1920-21. ‘The increased marketing 
of these meat animals effectively postponed the recovery of their 
prices until 1925, when the supply began to diminish as a result 
of a short corn crop in 1924. 

The sheep industry fared differently. Following the price 
depression, sheep herds were liquidated and prices of lambs and 
wool responded immediately. Since 1922, they have remained 
relatively well above other farm products. 

In dairy and poultry production the post-war trend has been 
steadily upward, as shown by the number of milk cows and 
poultry on farms. In 1920, reports from factories indicated a 
production of butter of 864 million pounds, increasing annually 
by nearly 100 million pounds until in 1923 the amount reported 
manufactured reached 1,252 million pounds and in 1924 1,356 
million pounds. 

The depressing effect that larger supplies have had on prices 
of other commodities, already noted, did not show itself in the 
case of dairy and poultry production until the fall of 1924. 
Ever since the quick recovery from the depression among the 


134 Hanpsook oF RurRAL SoctaL RESOURCES 


industrial centers, in 1922, the active state of employment at 
nearly war-time wages has permitted larger marketings of butter 
and eggs to be absorbed without depressing prices. 


THE PRICE READJUSTMENT 


These different production trends have affected the prices of 
the several groups of products considered. . We find that prices 
of all groups of farm products declined with the general collapse 
of values in 1920-21. ‘The depressing effect of heavy market- 
ings of hogs and cattle during 1922, 1923 and 1924 is seen 
in the relatively low position of the meat animal index. The 
decreased shipment of hogs and cattle to market toward the end 
of 1924 is responsible for the rise in the index since the middle 
of that year. Similarly, the effect of large surpluses on grain 
prices is reflected in the relatively low index of grain prices to 
the end of 1924. ‘The short corn crop of 1924 and the world 
shortage of bread grains in the same year caused the rise in 
the grain price index during the last half of 1924. The rela- 
tively high index of cotton and cotton seed prices is almost 
entirely attributable to the cumulative effects of the short crops 
of 1921 and 1922 reinforced by a definite demand for American 
cotton from both domestic and European textile manufacturers. 
The downturn in the cotton index in 1924 and 1925 reflects the 
large crops of those years. On the other hand, as against these 
wide price movements, there is to be observed the rather even 
course of dairy and poultry prices, except for seasonal variations. 

For agriculture as a whole, the prices of the several groups of 
products making a total of 30, have been combined into one 
index of farm prices, that is, prices paid to farmers at their 
local shipping points. ‘The disparity between the prices received 
by farmers and the prices paid by them, which has existed for 
more than five years, is clearly evident. ‘The facts to be noted 
particularly are the quick recovery in non-agricultural prices dur- 
ing 1922, their rather stable and horizontal movement since then, 
and the gradual upward movement in the index of prices received 
by farmers from 110 in 1921 to approximately 145 in 1925. 


AGRICULTURAL PRopucTION, PricEs AND INcoME 135 


THE PURCHASING POWER OF THE FARMER’S DOLLAR AND OF HIS 
PRODUCTS 


The significance of the movement of farm prices toward the 
level of non-agricultural prices lies in the fact that the purchasing 
power of a unit of the farmer’s product in exchange for non- 
agricultural products has greatly improved. In 1919, when 
prices of non-agricultural commodities reached 250, or 150 per 
cent above the pre-war level, farmers could buy with one dollar 
only 40 per cent of the amount purchased before the war. Dur- 
ing 1921, when non-agricultural prices fell to 160, one dollar 
bought about 57 per cent of what it bought before the war. 
Since then there has been only a slight change in the level of 
industrial prices, consequently the purchasing power of the dol- 
lar in terms of non-agricultural goods has risen only to 61 per 
cent in 1925. 

These low values of the farmer’s dollar have, however, been 
accompanied by rising prices received by farmers per unit. 
Thus, when in 1921 the purchasing power of the farmer’s do/- 
Jar was only about 60 per cent of its pre-war buying power, the 
index of prices received by farmers, which averaged 116, indi- 
cated that an average unit of farm products sold for $1.16 com- 
pared with $1 during 1910-1914. The purchasing power of a 
unit of the farmer’s goods, therefore, was then equivalent to 
that of 70 cents before the war ($1.16 XK .60 =.70). The 
real significance of the rise in prices of farm products from 116 
in 1921 to 145 in 1925 is found not in the mere rise of 29 
points, but in the fact that the purchasing power of a unit of the 
farmer’s product, relative to 100 before the war, has risen from 
69 per cent in the severest year of the depression to 89 per cent 
during 1925. ‘This measures the extent of the improvement 
in the economic position of agriculture in terms of the adjust- 
ment in the disparity between agricultural and non-agricultural 
prices. A decrease in the present spread of 11 per cent between 
these two groups of prices is yet to be accomplished (either by 
an increase in farm prices or a decine in the other) before the 
pre-war relationship between them will be restored. 


136 Hanppook oF RurRaAu SoctaL RESOURCES 


INCOME FROM AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION 


The recovery in farm prices to a point only 11 per cent below 
other prices should not be taken as the only measure of the 
advance made by agriculture from the depths of the depression. 
The movement of prices is significant only in its effect on income. 
In the following pages we will examine agricultural income, as 
determined by the changes in production and prices received by 
farmers, and prices of goods bought by them. Income from 
farm production may be considered first fromthe point of view 
of agriculture as a whole. Here we would be concerned largely 
with the net income to all owners of all capital invested in the 
industry after paying all costs of production and wages to 
those actively engaged in farming. It needs secondly to be con- 
sidered from the point of view of the actual farm operators, 
both owners and tenants, as distinguished from the non-farmer 
owners of farm property or other capital used in agriculture. 
In this view we are concerned with the payments made by farm 
operators to non-farmers for rent on rented farms and interest 
on borrowed capital. The balance, after paying these obliga- 
tions, is the reward for the labor, management and capital of 
the farm operators themselves. 

The gross income for the industry as a whole for the past six 
years has already been indicated. In the following table the 
contributions made to that gross income by the five major groups 
of farm products are shown. Before considering the distribution 
of income between the labor and management devoted to agri- 
culture on the one hand and the capital employed on the other, 
it may be well to point out the relation that these values, by 
groups of commodities, bear to the recent changes in production 
and prices, already discussed. 

The failure in the cotton crop in 1921 and the precipitate 
drop in price reduced the gross income from cotton and cotton- 
seed from 2.27 billion dollars in 1919 to .76 billion. The 
recovery in price and another short crop in 1922 gave the cotton 
growers an increase of nearly 500 million dollars in income. 


The progressively larger 1923 and 1924 crops have returned 


AGRICULTURAL PrRopucTIon, PricEs AND INcomME’ 137 


TABLE V 


GROSS INCOME FROM AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION—VALUE OF PRODUCTS 
CONSUMED AND SOLD 





Brits Cotton Dairy 
Year Cesta dil SLCAt lant cage: bine a and |} All farm 
July 1-June 30 animals tabl & cotton | poultry | products 
cave i seed |products 
Million | Million | Million | Million | Million | Million 
dollars dollars | dollars dollars | dollars dollars 


1919220) eee 3,005 | 3,346 | 1,747 | 2,271 | 3,598 | 15,719 
1920-20 2,246 | 2,328 | 1,705 | 1,272 | 3,502 | 12,668 
1921300) sock y 1,266 | 1,932 | 1,379 760 | 2,877 | 9,214 
[yaoi es 1,393 | 2,180 | 1,410 | 1,251 | 2,957 | 10,366 
rons snaeo 4393) (oD VGT OT 82601 LP 60RN 31925) 14,288 
1924205 ja) hs i, 1,934 | 2,621 | 1,370 | 1,690 | 3,284 | 12,136 


an income of about 1.6 billion dollars. In the case of the live- 
stock producers of the corn belt and the cattle ranges, the first 
significant recovery in income, which had dropped from 3.3 
billion dollars in 1919 to 1.9 billion in 1921, occurred in 1924 
as a result of the rise in hog values, Likewise with income 
from grains; the depressed state of agriculture in the grain- 
growing sections is evident in the fact that income from grains 
remained at practically the low point of 1921 during both the 
1922 and 1923 seasons. ‘The advance in 1924 was the result 
of better wheat prices obtained in this country because of short- 
ages of supplies in other countries. ‘The relatively high and 
stable prices for dairy and poultry products combined with in- 
creasing production during the first five years to produce less 
violent fluctuations in income. ‘The cumulative effect of in- 
creasing production appeared in 1924 in large stocks of dairy 
products and produced the slight decline in income shown for 
the 1924-25 season. 

(a) The Rate of Return on All Capital and Management 
Employed in Agriculture.—As in the case of other industries, we 
may here take the rate of return on capital investment as a 
measure of the economic welfare of agriculture. ‘This rate of 
return is computed in table 6 by deducting from the total gross 
income all operating costs, including property taxes and a wage 
allowance for the labor of farm operators and their families, and 


138 Hanpsook oF Rurau SoctaAL RESOURCES 


applying the balance to the current value of all capital invested 
in agriculture. ‘The rate thus obtained constitutes the return on 
capital and, since no allowance is made to compensate farm 
operators for planning and managing the year’s output, is to be 
taken as a return on both capital and management. Furthermore, 
it represents the return on the entire investment, whether owned, 
borrowed, or rented. 

In 1919-20, the rate of return amounted to 6.5 per cent. 
The enormous drop in income, without a proportionate decline 
in expenses of production, practically wiped out, for the indus- 
try as a whole, all returns on agricultural capital and rewards 
for management. In 1920-21, capital earnings represented a 
return on the entire investment of less than one per cent, which 
was not sufficient to cover interest on indebtedness and rent on 
rented farms. If these obligations were met, the actual farm 
operators must have drawn on their cash and credit reserves or 
received less than the hired-hand-wage allowed them for their 
labor. Practically the same conditions existed in 1921-22. As 
a result of the recent advance in prices, rather than of any read- 
justment in costs, the rate reached 4.6 per cent for 1924-25. 





TABLE VI 
RATES EARNED ON AGRICULTURAL CAPITAL, INCLUDING REWARDS FOR 
MANAGEMENT 
Current value Net income Rat d 
Year of total capital | available for rhs ee 
July i—June 30] invested in total capital 98 ra 4 
agriculture * investment” ee chy, 
Million Million 
dollars dollars Per cent 
1919-20 ..... ee a 79,607 pp hh 6.5 
1920-20 ees anh, 72,915 532 7 
UPA EY SU CP 62,740 909 1.4 
1922-23 en eon as 61,349 2,078 3.4 
1923-24 % 2 eee sh 59,548 1,992 S.3 
1924-25 dais oe he 59,154 2,712 4.6 





1As of Jan. 1 in the period indicated. Values include land buildings, 

livestock, implements, machinery, motor vehicles, and an allowance for 
cash working capital. 

2 After me i all operating costs and property taxes, and wage allow- 
a 


ance for labor of farm operators and their families, 


AGRICULTURAL PropucTion, Prices AND INCoME 139 


In comparing these returns on agricultural property with the 
rates of return in other industries, certain facts need to be borne 
in mind. ‘The returns shown here include the rewards for both 
capital used and managerial services contributed by the farmers. 
In other industries, salaries for management are deducted before 
computing rates earned on the capital investment. Furthermore, 
no allowance is here made for either the tremendous declines in 
the values of agricultural land, buildings and equipment, nor for 
the actual losses suffered by those farmers who during this period 
bought farms at high values and sold at lower prices. On the 
other hand, the returns are in addition to the house rent fur- 
nished by the industry to the farm operators, since this form 
of rent was not included as a part of income. 

(5) Reward for Operators Capital and Management.—Pe- 
riods of prosperity and depression do not affect all owners of 
farm property to the same degree. The return on capital in- 
vested in farm mortgages, or in farms rented out on a share or 
cash basis to farm operators, is fairly constant and, being a 
primary obligation, is fairly certain compared with the fluctua- 
tions in earnings on the farmer’s own capital. It is therefore 
highly important to observe how agricultural conditions of the 
past five years have affected the earnings on the farm operators’ 
own capital as distinguished from the rates they paid on bor- 
rowed capital or on rented farms. In making this distinction, 
farm operators may be likened to the stockholders of the farm 
industry while the inactive city owners of rented farms and the 
holders of farm mortgages may be considered the preferred stock 
and bondholders. 

During the recent depression, such large portions of the re- 
duced agricultural income were required to meet the expenses 
of production, taxes, rental payments, and interest on mort- 
gages and other indebtedness, that little, if any, income was 
left as a reward for the operator’s own capital investment, his 
labor, and managerial efforts. 

A conservative wage allowance for the farmer’s labor still 
leaves only a small return for his capital and management. In 
the following table the current value of the farm operator’s net 


140 Hanpspook oF RurRAL SocitaL RESOURCES 


capital investment was obtained by deducting, from the total 
shown in Table 6, the value of farms rented from non-farmers 
and indebtedness held by non-farmers. ‘The reward for the 
operator’s capital and management was obtained by deducting 
from gross income all costs of carrying on the farm business, 
including a wage allowance for the farmer’s labor and for rent 
and interest paid to the non-farmer owners of rented farms 
and borrowed capital. . 


TABLE VII 
REWARD FOR OPERATORS’ NET CAPITAL INVESTMENT AND MANAGEMENT 


Current value Rewarltor Rate earned 


Year of operators’ operators’ ‘ ae eye 
July 1-June 30 net capital capital and eaataat Ne 
investment management * pianlawemnent 
Million Million 
dollars dollars Per cent 
E9LSR20 2 iielcuien 47,223 2,867 6.1 
LODO MU nly 41,126 —1,489 aN 
19222 als bly tive ay 34,153 —590 —1.7 
1B Pop r Ae Rhu ig Bai ant 33,755 573 7 
1923-24 2.20 eyeieis 32,720 497 KS 
LHS ir Vinte aust 32,516 1,177 3.6 


1 After deducting from gross income all operating expenses, including 
wages to labor, rent on farms rented from non-operators, taxes, interest on 
debts held by non-operators, and a wage allowance for the farmers’ and 
family labor. 


The negative rates shown for 1920-21 and 1921-22 indicate 
the fact that the year’s income was not sufficient to yield the 
farmer an adequate reward for doth his efforts and his capital. 
During 1924-25, the rate of return increased to 3.6 per cent 
from a rate of 1.5 per cent in the preceding year, but even these 
returns are considerably below the commercial interest returns 
and managerial rewards in other enterprises. It is also to be 
observed that these low rates of return are based on declining 
property values. 

The validity and significance of the distinction drawn be- 
tween farm operators and the inactive owners of capital invested 


AGRICULTURAL PropucTion, Prices AND IncomE 141 


in agriculture is well illustrated when the rates of return earned 
on all capital and the rates received by the various owners are 
compared. 


TABLE VIII 


RATES OF RETURN EARNED ON ALL CAPITAL AND RATES RECEIVED BY THE 
VARIOUS OWNERS OF CAPITAL 


Rate earned} Rate of Rate paid 


on allcap- |interest paid] on value of Rate earned 


Year ares on operators’ 
ital invested |on mortgage| cash and ; 
July 1-June 30 in and other |share-rented| 2 capital 
agriculture jindebtedness}| property decchanragnntan 
Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent 
1919220 96 jog es 6.5 ¥; 8.3 6.1 
1920-20 cars ‘7 7.0 7.3 —3.6 
1921-22 050 1.4 6.8 5.7 —1.7 
L9Z2+Z3iheleidieune 3.4 6.8 6.2 1.7 
1923-24004 tas 3.3 6.6 6.6 1.5 
1924-25... oe 4.6 6.4" 7.1 3.6 


During the severest years of the depression, when the industry 
as a whole showed insignificant capital earnings, comparatively 
high rates had to be paid on indebtedness and on cash and share 
rented property. Farmers still pay higher rates for borrowed 
capital and for rented property than they earn on their own 
investment. 

(c) Reward for the Farmers Effort—Another comparison 
of considerable value as indicating the present economic well- 
being of the average farmer lies in the reward for his physical 
and managerial efforts. If, instead of allowing farmers’ wages 
for their labor to obtain a balance applicable on capital, as was 
done in table 7, we now allow capital a conservative current in- 
terest return between 4.5 and 5 per cent the balance will rep- 
resent the net income available for the labor and management 
of the 6.4 million farm families in the United States. The re- 
sults, reduced to a per farm basis, indicate that, in 1919-20, 
net income per family amounted to $1,269 of which the reward 
for all unpaid labor and management was $947. ‘These dropped, 
respectively, to $543 and $294 in 1921-22. The past year’s 


142 HanpBook oF RuRAL SoctAL REsouRCES 


production amounted to a net return of $876 and an indicated 
reward for labor and management of $649. 


TABLE IX 


REWARD FOR LABOR AND MANAGEMENT CONTRIBUTED BY OPERATORS 
AND THEIR FAMILIES 


allowance [Reward per | (without 
ene Net income nhenee operator and board) 
t per operator ° family for ° 
HES na ite and family Hie deo labor and Lees 
5] ’ 
per operator acetoeot per year 
Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars 
191920 etm ois 1,269 322 947 675 
1920221) os aus 720 319 401 779 
192022" sa eae 543 249 294 520 
192222355 co ='es 701 230 471 501 
1923-24) 2.200. 764 233 531 563 
1924-25 he cig 876 227 649 569 


In interpreting these returns it is important to observe 
(a) that during the four years, 1920-1923, farmers paid hired 
labor more than they themselves earned per family; (4) that of 
the $543 net income in 1921-22 only slightly more than $200 
was in cash, the balance being the value of food contributed by 
the farm to family living, while in 1924, of the $876 net in- 
come, about $500 was in cash; and (c) that out of these meager 
cash incomes the average farmer had to purchase manufactured 
foods, clothing and building materials at prices which had not 
declined in proportion to the decline in farm income, to pay 
principal on debts, and to provide a certain amount of recrea- 
tion and education for his family. ‘The inadequacy of these 
cash earnings, and the retrenchment in the average farmer’s 
standard of living, is reflected in the financial condition of those 
industries which find in the farm population the outlet for their 
manufactured goods. It is seen also in statistics on delinquent 
taxes, unpaid debts, and bankruptcies among farmers. 


XIV 


SOME AGRICULTURAL POLICIES OF 
EUROPEAN NATIONS 


ASHER HoBson 
American Delegate, International Institute of Agriculture, Rome 


Even in normal times it is difficult to translate the legislative 
acts and tendencies of a nation into terms of definite agricul- 
tural policies. ‘The status of agriculture in a country is often 
the result of weather forces operating in surplus producing re- 
gions and of unguided economic pressure rather than the product 
of legislative action. It is, indeed, an unusual occurrence when 
the condition of a nation’s agriculture is the legitimate offspring 
of definite unified policies of statesmen. It is not unusual for 
a legislative body to pass laws which produce contradictory effects. 
At the present time England is expressing deep concern over the 
distressing condition of British agriculture. ‘This concern, how- 
ever, does not prevent the passage of an Empire Settlement Facili- 
ties Act designed to subsidize the emigration of agriculturists, 
thus tending to deprive England of some of her best farmers. 
The parliament has also appropriated a considerable sum to 
encourage trade between the dominions and the mother coun- 
try. Presumably this sum will be devoted in part to the promo- 
tion of the sale of dominion grown foodstuffs in British markets 
in competition with the products of British agriculture. In 
Italy the cost of living is a burning question. It is a question 
of national proportions and one of political significance. Yet 
Italy has recently placed an import duty of around 40 cents per 
bushel on wheat and of from one to one and one-half cents per 
pound on sugar. In addition the important cities collect a tax 


143 


144 Hanpspook oF RurRAL SoctAL RESOURCES 


on most necessities brought within their walls for the purpose of 
sale. All three procedures are directly reflected in the cost of 
living. 

It is not the purpose of this paper to discuss the merits or 
demerits of the examples given above. They are mentioned 
for the purpose of emphasizing the point that agricultural poli- 
cies have their elusive aspects. If there be a dominant note 
common to European nations in their attitude toward agriculture, 
that note is “self-sufficiency.” Although “self-sufficiency” is in 
many cases impossible of realization, nevertheless, it is a cherished 
hope. 

Not many years ago the world fought a war to abolish war. 
Most nations remember the war, but many of them seem to have 
forgotten the abolishing phase of the war. One gathers that 
some of the nations have a lingering suspicion that the last war 
may not have been the end of war. 

Take Switzerland for example: Switzerland was a neutral. 
With a grim smile a Swiss will tell you that his nation was not 
in the last war. He will also tell you that his nation was in a 
position similar to the man whose house suffered slightly from 
a fire but whose goods were totally destroyed by water used in 
preventing the fire. The cure was little better than the catas- 
trophe. Although the Swiss were not at war they suffered most 
of the pangs of war. ‘The nation still experiences a dread when 
she recalls her bread lines, her butter cards, and her food tickets. 
During the war Switzerland, a nation of dairymen, had to con- 
trol her butter distribution in order that hospitals and the needy 
be supplied. As a result of her food shortage she made the 
purchase of cereals a government monopoly. ‘This monopoly 
expires at the end of 1926. At the present time the price of 
wheat to Swiss growers is 8 francs per 100 kilograms more than 
the price of the same grade of foreign wheat delivered at the 
border—a subsidy of around 45 cents a bushel. At the end of 
1926 the people of Switzerland must decide whether or not they 
wish to continue to pay in the name of national security this 


added price for breadstuffs, 


SomE AGRICULTURAL PoLiciEs oF European Nations 145 


THE BATTLE OF WHEAT IN ITALY 


Take another example along the same line. Italy is at pres- 
ent staging a great Battaglia del Grano—The Battle of Wheat. 

This battle of wheat is conducted with all the zest and gesture 
of a liberty loan campaign, with national committees, provincial 
committees, district committees, local committees. It is fur- 
thered by posters, gifts, prizes, films and miles of front page 
space. It has two popular appeals. In the first place it is 
called a battle. Battle calls for action. It has no prosaic label 
such as campaign or movement. In the second place it is de- 
signed to free Italy from foreign imports of wheat. It is a 
battle against a foreign enemy—a setting capable of universal 
appeal to the Italian people. ‘The Government has appropriated 
27,000,000 lire—over $1,000,000—<in addition to her regular 
agricultural appropriations to carry on this work.. The official 
emphasis is placed on increased yields through improved cultural 
methods rather than upon extension of acreage. Improved cul- 
tural methods is a good agricultural policy in peace time or war. 
It is an especially wise policy when applied to increased wheat 
production in Italy. One may seriously doubt the benefits to be 
derived by Italy in an attempt to grow more wheat through ex- 
tension of area. Already over one-half of her arable land is 
in grain. Additional land given over to this crop is likely to 
mean production on less suitable land or land brought under cul- 
tivation at a high cost. Either procedure means a higher pro- 
duction cost in growing wheat. Although the emphasis is placed 
on increased yields it is probable that area will be extended. 
The Italian government has restored the wheat import duty of 
7.50 gold lire per quintal—more than 40 cents per bushel— 
which immediately raised the price of wheat. This increased 
price plus the competitive zeal of committees and individual 
farmers is likely to result in a material extension of acreage. 

Perhaps it is not a correct statement to say that this Battaglia 
del Grano in Italy is a military measure. But certainly it is 
one of national economic security. ‘The unfavorable balance of 


146 Hanpgook oF RurRAt SocraL RESOURCES 


trade, caused in considerable measure by large wheat imports, 
had an adverse effect upon the value of the lire. The immediate 
purpose of growing more wheat is to reduce imports in order to 
relieve the pressure on the lire. Hence, one cannot say that the 
movement is a military measure, although it be one of national 
defense. It is certain that the experience of the last war gives it 
impetus. This “battle” is an interesting experiment to watch. 
Whatever the outcome, it has served to emphasize the importance 
of agriculture to the Italian people. 


THE ENGLISH SITUATION 


Now let us return to England. England’s agricultural reform 
agitation has passed through the investigation stages of royal com- 
mission, tribunal and special committee. A guaranteed price was 
enacted and repealed. A wages board was set up, abolished, and 
established again. Agricultural conditions are occupying the 
attention of statesmen of all parties. ‘The party proposing an 
acceptable remedy will be able to capitalize its proposal in terms 
of political advantage. ‘That advantage is based not so much 
upon the importance of the political strength of the rural popu- 
lation as it is upon the fact that the nation is looking toward 
a prosperous agriculture to assist in the solution of other national 
problems. At present the number of unemployed in Great 
Britain is greater than the number engaged in agriculture. 
More food and more employment from the land are the ends 
in view. It is expected that the benefits of such an adjustment 
will extend beyond the confines of agriculture itself. Subsidies 
in one form or another have been proposed with persistent regu- 
larity. The amount of land under the plow seems to be ac- 
cepted as an index to agricultural prosperity. Hence, it has been 
proposed that the nation pay a subsidy for cultivated acres. For 
one year only—1921—a subsidy of 3 pounds per acre for wheat 
and 4 pounds per acre for oats was paid. This act was hur- 
riedly repealed because of the financial burden which it threat- 
ened to place upon the state. It does not seem likely that 


SomE AGRICULTURAL PoLiciEs oF EuRoPEAN Nations 147 


Great Britain with its large urban population will adopt either 
a protective tariff on agricultural products, or subsidize the farmer 
on the basis of land put into tilled crops. 

This feeling lends importance to the most recent proposal 
which is fathered by the Liberal Party led by no less a per- 
sonage than Lloyd George. The claims of the Liberal Party 
are based upon the contention that the English landlord, through 
wasteful and inefficient methods, has violated a public trust, 
and for that reason is an unfit guardian of the land. A second 
contention is that undercapitalization of farm operations is one 
of the roots of the present trouble. One of the economic 
justifications of a landlord, so the Liberal Party holds, is the 
furnishing of capital at low rates and the contribution of agricul- 
tural leadership. ‘The contention is that the present-day English 
landlord furnishes neither. It is held that the landlord is un- 
able to finance the farm operations in an adequate manner, 
nor will he be able to do so in the future. ‘The conclusion is 
that the state is the only agency in position to advance the neces- 
sary funds and for that reason the state should take over the 
land. 

The proposals of the Liberal Party may be summarized as 
follows: 

1. That the state take over the land. 

2. That the landlord receive from the state an annual pay- 
ment based upon the earning capacity of the land. 

3. That the state rent the land to tenants according to a sys- 
tem known as “cultivating tenure.” This form of tenure is 
based upon the ability of the tenant to cultivate his acres in a 
husbandlike manner. This right of tenure may be handed 
down to heirs. 

The fact that these proposals are receiving serious considera- 
tion emphasizes one of the noticeable differences in the psychol- 
ogy of the British and American farmer. In America the “pride 
of land ownership” is a vital motive force in agricultural affairs. 
The desire to own the acres they till is an ambition universal 
among farmers in this country. In England the operating 


148 HaNnpBookK OF RURAL SoctAL RESOURCES 


farmer has been divorced so long from the ownership of the 
land that the proposal for land nationalization means, for the 
most part, merely the exchange of a private landlord for a 
public one. 

Perhaps the startling thing about the program of the Liberal 
Party lies not in the proposals themselves, but in the fact that, 
though they have a Russian flavor, they come from a responsible 
political party in conservative England. ‘The end in view in 
England is definite: More food and more employment from the 
land. Denmark is held up as the shining example. The means 
to the end will be of interest to American agriculture, for, theo- 
retically, it is not a long way from the proposals of the Liberal 
Party in England to the present agricultural program of Soviet 
Russia. 


THE RUSSIAN PROGRAM 


Immediately after the revolution of 1917 the Russian govern- 
ment nationalized the land. Agricultural communes and soviet 
estates were established. A part of this program was the requi- 
sitioning of all surplus cereals for the use of the urban popula- 
tion and the army. ‘The peasant proved to be communistic in 
so far as participation in the use of the land was concerned, but 
this communism did not extend to giving over the surplus prod- 
ucts of his labor. As a result the peasant saw to it that his 
farm yielded no surplus beyond the needs of his own family. 
This situation led to a breakdown in agricultural production 
which in turn led to the adoption of a new agrarian code in 
1922. ‘This code, together with subsequent modifications, gives 
the peasant a permanent tenure based on his ability to cultivate 
the land—a tenure not unlike that proposed by the Liberal 
Party in England. In addition the tenant has the right to dis- 
pose of his surplus on the open market and remit his tax pay- 
ments to the government in cash. Indications are not lacking 
that the position of the Russian peasant is approaching a status 
satisfactory to himself. If this be the case the world may look 
to a speedy recovery of agricultural production in Russia. 


SomE AGRICULTURAL PoLiciEs oF EuRoPEAN Nations 149 


LAND REFORM IN THE BALKANS 


In dealing with European agricultural policies, one cannot 
overlook the sweeping land reforms of the Balkan States. 
Roumania furnishes a good example of the tendency. Before 
the war one-half of the land area in that country was held by 
less than 6 per cent of the land owners. In 1917 Roumania 
passed legislation extending the right of expropriation of lands 
to include not only purposes of public utility, but also purposes 
of national unity. Expropriation was adopted as a means of 
giving legally to the peasant something he probably would have 
taken illegally. Revolution threatened, if the land hunger of 
the populace were not appeased. ‘The peasant may have fought 
in the world war in behalf of his country but he also fought 
for the right to possess a small part of it. Lands of the crown, 
absentees, corporations, foreigners, and proprietors of large hold- 
ings were taken over by the state for reallotment to peasant pro- 
prietors. By this action large properties were reduced from 49 
per cent of the total area before the war to 14 per cent. 
Formerly some of the estates reached 40,000 acres in size. 
After the land reform took place none contained over 1,235 
acres. The state intended to pay an equitable price for this 
land. ‘The price was fixed by various methods such as: 1. The 
average market price for the 5-year period ending August 15, 
1916. 2. Evaluations made by specialists. 3. Twenty times 
the rental value for the year 1916. Payments were made in 5 
per cent land bonds redeemable within 50 years. This provi- 
sion, although based on good intentions, resulted in actual confis- 
cation of the property because of the depreciation of the money 
of the country. In 1924, the land bonds accepted on the 1916 
valuations were not worth over one year’s gold rental of the land 
they represented. 

What has been the result of this land reform? Many claim 
that the redivision of the land into small properties has resulted 
in decreased production, Certainly the exportable surpluses have 
not reached the prewar levels in these countries. However, I 
am not ready to accept, on the evidence available, the claim 


150 Hanppook oF RurRAt SociaL REsouRCcES 


that the land reform movement is wholly responsible for this 
decrease. Most of the territory in question was the scene of 
actual war operation. Industry and agriculture were disorgan- 
ized. ‘The country is not the same as before the war. We 
have no assurance that production would be as great as it is even 
though there had been no change in the system of land owner- 
ship. Furthermore, some allowance should be made for the 
growing pains of a transition period. The peasants are working 
in a new environment under a new system. Experience should 
become a cumulative asset. Adaptation is a matter of time. 
It is with some hesitancy that one accepts exportable surpluses 
as the sole index of a nation’s agricultural welfare. ‘The large 
estates carried on a commercial agriculture producing largely to 
sell, while the peasant now produces first for his own consump- 
tion and secondly for the market. If production for the home 
permits the peasants to maintain a higher standard of living than 
formerly the policy is entirely justified. Since the population 
is largely an agricultural one a higher standard of living on the 
farm means a higher national standard. It is advisable that one 
withhold judgment on the economic efficiency of the Balkan 
land reforms until a later date. 


AMERICAN INTEREST 


American agriculture is interested in European agricultural 
policies. No sound national program for agriculture can ignore 
the agricultural tendencies of other countries. Of all the mani- 
festations, the farmer of the United States is most interested, 
perhaps, in the self-sufficing aspirations of nations which before 
the war were satisfied to depend upon other countries for a con- 
siderable portion of their agricultural supplies. One cannot say 
whether this is a temporary aftermath of the war, or the 
beginning of a lasting situation. Certainly such aspirations exist. 
In some countries their expression takes the form of an agricul- 
tural tariff such as exists in Germany and in Italy. In other 
countries it may be a subsidy such as the wheat monopoly in 
Switzerland or the one proposed in connection with the plowed 


SoME AGRICULTURAL PoniciEs oF EurRoPEAN Nations 151 


land area in England. There is a still more important and subtle 
barrier to our own products in some foreign lands. In many 
countries American agricultural products are likely to meet with 
increasing opposition in the form of good will propaganda for 
the consumption of home grown products, 

Another factor presents itself. Many nations which are our 
best customers in the purchase of agricultural products are con- 
tracting to repay huge war debts. In general, this payment must 
come about through increased sales to us, and decreased purchases 
from us. One may guess that a full share of the increased sales 
and decreased purchases will fall upon the products of American 
agriculture. 

If the tendencies portrayed in this paper are a correct inter- 
pretation of the facts, then one may well ask the question: 
Shall the directing forces of agriculture in this country devote 
attention to an orderly readjustment of production to the de- 
mands of the home markets—within reasonable limits—or shall 
we let unguided economic pressure with its usual array of casual- 
ties accomplish the same result? 





PART II 


THE PROGRAMS OF NATIONAL AGENCIES 
ENGAGED IN RURAL SOCIAL WORK 


AMERICAN COUNTRY LIFE ASSOCIATION AND THE NATIONAL COUN- 
CIL OF AGENCIES ENGAGED IN RURAL SOCIAL WORK 


The first national country life conference held at Baltimore, 
January 6-7, 1919, was attended by 175 persons from 30 states, 
who represented 25 national organizations and five federal bu- 
reaus engaged in country life work. ‘The conference was such 
a distinct success that the American Country Life Association was 
formed and a committee on a permanent constitution was author- 
ized to report at the next conference. 

For purposes of clarifying the idea represented by the term 
“Country Life” the following phases have been selected as be- 
longing to the country life field: 


Home-making 

Rural Education. 

Health and Sanitation 

Recreation and Social Life 

Morals and Religious Activities 
Communications 

Rural Leadership Training 

Rural Government and Legislation 
Social Welfare 

Rural Organization 

Investigation of Rural Social Problems 
Teaching of Rural Sociology 

Country Planning 

International Country Life Movement 
Public Information 


153 


154 Hanppook oF RurRAL SociaAL REsouRCES 


The purpose of the Association as stated in its constitution is: 
“'T’o facilitate discussion of the problems and objectives in coun- 
try life and the means of their solution and attainment; to fur- 
ther the efforts and increase the efficiency of persons, agencies, 
and institutions engaged in this field; to disseminate information 
calculated to promote a better understanding of country life, 
and to aid in rural improvement.” 


ACTIVITIES OF THE ASSOCIATION 


The American Country Life Association is composed of per- 
sons and organizations actively engaged in the solution of prob- 
lems, or who are interested in the scientific study and interpreta- 
tion of problems in the country life field. It is the only organi- 
zation of its kind of national scope, emphasizing the human 
factor in agriculture [from a national point of view]. The 
functions of the Association are to: 

Emphasize the importance of the country life problem; 

Help to formulate an all-round program of life on the land 
according to American ideals; 

Help to codrdinate country life agencies; 

Coéperate with country life clubs, state-wide and local; 

Conduct an annual country life conference; 

Publish proceedings of its conferences and Rural America, 
a monthly periodical; 

Promote the training of rural leaders; 

Retain the codperation and support of a substantial number of 
members and afhliated organizations; 

Maintain the National Council of Agencies Engaged in Rural 
Social Work; 

Serve as a national information bureau on country life affairs; 

Maintain administrative offices and staff at 1849 Grand Cen- 
tral Terminal Building, New York City. 

It has published seven volumes, averaging 225 pages each, 
on the country life movement as follows: 

Vol I.—Contains the objectives or goals which the country 
life movement aims to reach (out of print). 


NaTionaL AGENCIES ENGAGED IN Rurat SociaL Worx 155 


Vol. II.—Is a compendium on the problem of rural health. 

Vol. III].—Centers about the problems involved in Rural 
organization. 

Vol. I1V.—Is entitled Relationships of Village, Town and Open 
Country. 

Vol. V.—Is an attempt to cover the field of rural education. 

Vol. VI.—Is perhaps the only volume of its kind on the rural 
home. 

Vol. VII.—Is a frank facing up to the question of religion in 
country life. 

These can be secured from the University of Chicago Press, 
Chicago, Illinois, at $2.00 per volume. 

The official organ of the A. C. L. A. is Rural America, pub- 
lished monthly, with the exception of July and August, which 
carries current reviews of events and literature of country life 
progress in its diverse aspects and articles by leaders in this field, 
national and international. ‘The Association also publishes a 
country life reading list, and outlines of study courses for neigh- 
borhood clubs and leadership training groups. 

The membership is composed of forward-looking farmers 
and farm women, publicists, ministers, teachers, men and women 
of affairs, social workers, leaders of agriculture, students and 
teachers of rural sociology and education, country farm and 
home demonstration agents, and others from both city and coun- 
try in the United States and Canada who have a vision of a 
permanent progressive living on the land. 

The annual dues are $5.00. A contributing membership is 
$10 a year; supporting membership $25 to $100; codperating 
membership $100 and over. For the payment of dues the mem- 
ber receives, in addition to privileges of membership, Rural 
America for the year and the volume of proceedings which con- 
tains the papers and discussions presented at the last annual con- 
ference. Applications for membership should be addressed to 
the office of the Association, with remittances made payable to 
Mr. Charles F. Jenkins, Treasurer. 


156 Hanpsook oF RurAt SoctaL REsouRCES 


THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF SOCIAL AGENCIES 


The first conference of the American Country Life Association 
created a committee which was to call a conference of national 
rural social agencies “‘for the purpose of codrdinating the pro- 
grams of these various agencies in order that duplication and 
waste effort may be avoided.” This committee pursued its task 
with unusual diligence and skill, and its chairman, Dr. C. W. 
Thompson, submitted its report at the second annual conference 
of the association at Chicago in November, 1919. ‘This report 
created such favorable impressions that the committee was at 
once instructed to continue its studies. 

The national agencies called together by Dr. ‘Thompson at 
Washington, D. C., in April, 1919, passed a resolution request- 
ing the American Country Life Association to call together 
representatives of these agencies at such future times as might 
seem desirable. A number of the agencies later requested Dr. 
Kenyon L. Butterfield, the president of the association, to issue 
such a call, 

Under President Butterfield’s leadership, nineteen agencies 
sent representatives to a meeting called in New York City on 
March thirtieth, 1920. ‘These representatives passed a motion 
requesting the American Country Life Association to call to- 
gether the representatives of certain agencies for “the formation 
of a council of national agencies engaged in rural social work.” 
The purposes of such council as well as the principles which 
should guide its activities were thoroughly discussed. A final 
motion was passed requesting the executive committee of the 
American Country Life Association to “organize the council as 
an integral part of the American Country Life Association.” 

Acting upon the instruction of this conference, President 
Butterfield called the representatives of these various agencies 
and organizations together again at Washington, D. C., on 
December 30, 1920. ‘Twenty national agencies were repre- 
sented. At this meeting a plan of organization was presented 
and later adopted. In the plan of organization the following 
words are found: ‘The Council shall be organized as an integral 


NationaL AGENCIES ENGAGED In Rurat SociaL Work 157 


part of the American Country Life Association; the chairman 
of the Council shall be designated by the executive committee 
of the Association, and if necessary, the Association will endeavor 
to provide either officials or financial assistance adequate to pro- 
vide special officers and equipment.” 

From the above condensed statement of the development of 
the National Council it will be seen that those who promoted the 
idea had in mind a very close relationship between the Council 
and the American Country Life Association. ‘The functions of 
the two organizations are, however, distinct. The Association 
is a conference body whose membership is made up of indi- 
viduals, The Council, on the other hand, is an advisory body 
whose membership is composed of representatives of national 
agencies or organizations. 

Principles of the National Council and Plan of Organization. 
—When the National Council was formally organized at Wash- 
ington on December 30, 1920, it adopted the following set of 
by-laws which formulate the plan of organization and state the 
principles under which the council is to function: 

1. The Council shall consist of national, public or private 
organizations and agencies, engaged in rural social work, repre- 
sented by one voting delegate and not to exceed two additional 
non-voting delegates chosen by each such organization or agency. 

2. The purpose of the Council shall be to enable the associat- 
ing agencies to discuss their programs and policies with other 
agencies of the Council; to prevent overlapping and duplication 
of rural social work; to enable the associating agencies to coérdi- 
nate their programs and to act jointly in investigating and pro- 
moting needed rural social work. 

3. The Council shall have advisory functions only. Its 
actions shall not be binding upon the participating organizations 
and agencies; nor shall any agency in the Council be bound to 
assume any financial obligations. 

4, Initial membership of the Council shall consist of such of 
the following organizations and agencies as indicate a desire to 
join the Council. . . . [Here were enumerated the agencies. ] 

The admission of other agencies for membership in the Coun- 


158 Hanppook oF RuRAL SociAL RESOURCES 


cil be by an affirmative vote of a majority of the organizations 
and agencies of the Council. 

5. The initial meeting of the Council shall be called by the 
Executive Committee of the American Country Life Association. 
Subsequent meetings of the Council shall be held as frequently 
and at such times and places as the Council itself may de- 
termine. 

6. The Council shall be organized as an integral part of the 
A. C. L. A.; the chairman of the Council shall be designated 
by the executive committee of the Association, and if an execu- 
tive secretary and clearance officer be found necessary, the A. C. 
L. A. will endeavor to provide either the officials or financial 
assistance adequate to provide special officer and equipment. 

7. Amendments to these by-laws may be made by a majority 
vote of the voting delegates at any meeting, the proposed amend- 
ment having been included in the call for the meeting. 

Projects of the National Council—Although the National 
Council of Social agencies has lacked a budget and has been 
almost wholly occupied in defining its functions, several projects 
have already been attempted and the engrossing questions that 
are engaging the attention of the Council are as follows: 

What is an advanced rural social work program? 

By what means can the results of the efforts of the social 
agencies serving in rural communities be made available to rural 
dwellers? 

How enrich local thinking, and local attitudes? (Suggested 
for a special study.) 

How correlate local studies of communities with studies made 
by specialist’s groups? 

What is the content of a codperative policy of national agen- 
cies in assisting local communities to make their own programs? 

How recruit, train, and retain rural social workers? 

How far, if at all, will rural social programs have to be 
financed by outside subsidies? 

Can this Council act as an advisory body for foundations or 
philanthropists in land settlement, rural social welfare projects, 
etc. If so—how? 


NationaL AGENCIES ENGAGED IN Rurau SoctaL Work 159 


OFFICIALS OF THE NATIONAL COUNCIL 


Chairman, Kenyon L. Butterfield, East Lansing, Michigan. 

Secretary, Henry Israel, 1849 Grand Central Terminal Build- 
ing, New York, N. Y. 

A Committee on Objectives, Agency Membership, and Fi- 
nance, is now in process of formation. Shillady and Stuart, Inc., 
Social Organization Service, is acting as general counsel and 
making a study of organization, program and finance problems 
for the year beginning September 21, 1925. 

Agencies and Organizations affiliated with the National Coun- 
cil—There are two general types of agencies engaged in rural 
social work, namely those which are privately supported and those 
which are supported by means of public funds. ‘The public 
agencies are usually related to some broad field of work which 
includes the field of rural social service. Such governmental 
agencies cannot, of course, affiliate with the Council on the same 
basis as is possible with private agencies. 


Private Agencies Affiliated with the National Council 


American Child Health Association 

American Farm Bureau Federation 

American Home Economics Association 

American Library Association 

American National Red Cross 

Board of Home Missions and Church Extension of the Metho- 
dist Episcopal Church, Department of Rural Work. 

Board of National Missions, Presbyterian Church of the U.S. A., 
Town and Country Department 

Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America 

Girl Scouts 

Home Missions Council 

National Board of the Young Women’s Christian Association; 
Rural Communities Department 

National Child Labor Committee 

National Catholic Welfare Conference 


160 HanpBpook oF RuRAL SociAL REsouRCES 


National Congress of Mothers and Parent-Teacher Association; 
Country Life Department 

National Council of the Young Men’s Christian Association; 
Town and Country Department 

National Education Association; Rural Education Department 

National Grange 

National Organization for Public Health Nursing 

Playground and Recreation Association of America 

Russell Sage Foundation, Recreation Department 


Public Agencies Affiliated with the National Council on a Co- 
operative Basis 


U.S. Bureau of Education; Rural Education Division 

U. S. Department of Agriculture; Division of Farm Population 
and Rural Life 

U. S. Department of Agriculture; Extension Service 

U. S. Department of Labor; Children’s Bureau 

U. S. Public Health Service 


AMERICAN CHILD HEALTH ASSOCIATION 


Organization.—The American Child Health Association was 
incorporated in January, 1923. 

Purpose.—lIts purposes are the saving of life; the prevention 
of disease; the promotion of health and development of chil- 
dren of all ages; prevention and correction of defects which 
interfere with health and normal growth; teaching the principles 
and practice of general and personal health in the home and the 
school; health education of parents and children; and improving 
the standards of training of physicians, nurses and teachers of 
child health. 

Services Rendered.—The division of public health relations 
aids state and local officials in their campaigns to reduce infant 
and maternal mortality, to promote the health of mothers and 
children of all ages, to provide for a supply of clean and whole- 
some milk and to secure accurate and complete birth registration. 


Nationa AGENCIES ENGAGED IN Rurat SociaL Work 161 


The nursing work of the Association is done by the National 
Organization for Public Health Nursing (for a description see 
page 184). The medical division gives advice regarding the 
care of mothers, babies and older children, the establishment 
and organization of medical conferences and clinics, the medical 
examination of school children, securing team work between the 
practicing physician and public health agencies and other medi- 
cal matters. ‘The health education division is working on 
problems in physical education, home economics, kindergarten 
and general education. ‘The research division obtains accurate 
knowledge of needs in the health field and the ways and means 
by which the Association can most effectively meet them. 

Method of Procedure-—The Association renders both direct 
and indirect services to organizations and individuals in the child 
health field. 

Territory Covered at Present—The entire United States, 

How Individuals May Secure Services—On application to 
the American Child Health Association. 

Publications and Exhibits—The Association publishes a bulle- 
tin occasionally and codperates with popular, professional, -class 
and trade journals and the press. It is promoting May Day as a 
national child health day. A list of other publications is avail- 
able on application. 

Officers —Herbert Hoover, president; S. J. Crumbine, general 
executive. 


Headquarters Office—370 Seventh Avenue, New York City. 


AMERICAN FARM BUREAU FEDERATION 


Organization.—The American Farm Bureau Federation was 
formed in 1919 as a federation of state farm bureau organiza- 
tions, 

Purpose-—To develop a completely unified national organiza- 
tion to act as spokesman for the farmer and to adequately repre- 
sent the farmer and the farmer’s interests; to foster and develop 
all those lines of endeavor which make for better homes, better 
social and religious life, better health and better rural living in 


162 Hanpspook oF Rurat SocitaL RESOURCES 


every sense; to defend the farmer’s interest in all matters relating 
to tax levies, tariffs, currency, banking, railways, highways, 
waterways, foreign markets, the merchant marine and all similar 
legislative matters. 

Services Rendered.—The Federation has departments on legis- 
lation, taxation, information, research marketing, organization, 
etc. It has a national committee on home and community work. 

Methods of Procedure-——The Federation renders services to 
state and county farm bureau organizations, through the state 
offices. 

Territory Covered.—Thirty-seven states. 

Publications.—A list of publications is available on request. 

Headquarters Address—58 East Washington Street, Chi- 
cago, Ill. 


AMERICAN HOME ECONOMICS ASSOCIATION 


Organization—The Association was organized in 1908 and 
incorporated in 1909. 

Purpose-—To bring together those concerned in developing 
the art of right living by the application of systematized knowl- 
edge to the problems of the home and the community. 

Services Rendered.—The “A. H. E. A.” is a professional as- 
sociation including teachers, extension workers, homemakers, in- 
stitution workers, women in business. It has the following sec- 
tions: Food and Nutrition, Home Economics Education, Home 
Economics Extension, Institution Economics, Textile Home 
Economics in Business, Related Art, and Homemakers. ‘There 
are forty-seven affiliated state associations, including the District 
of Columbia. 

Method of Procedure——Members coéperate with other agen- 
cies and hold an annual conference. ‘The Association touches 
the rural field largely through the extension service; one sec- 
tion of the Association is devoted entirely to this work. 

Territory Covered.—The United States and Canada, with a 
scattered membership in foreign countries, 

Publications —The Journal of Home Economics, issued 
monthly. 


NaTIonAL AGENCIES ENGAGED In Rurat SociAL Work 163 


Present Officers Katherine Blunt, president; Lita Bane, 
executive secretary; Helen W. Atwater, editor. 

Headquarters Address—Room 617, Mills Building, Wash- 
ington, D. C. 


AMERICAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION 


Organization.—The American Library Association was organ- 
ized in Philadelphia, October 6, 1876 (inc. 1879) as the im- 
mediate result of a three days’ library conference held in con- 
nection with the Centennial Exhibition. 

Purpose.—To foster the development of libraries and the use 
of books; and to assist in making books a vital, working, educa- 
tional force in American life, and in making libraries easily ac- 
cessible to all people. 

Services Rendered.—Advisory assistance to all who are inter- 
ested in library establishment, extension and development; pro- 
moting the development of libraries, especially in rural districts; 
maintaining a free employment bureau which serves librarians 
seeking positions, and libraries which need librarians and aassist- 
ants; publishing books, periodicals and pamphlets which aid in 
the establishment of libraries, and which aid trustees and libra- 
rians in rendering library service; holding annual conferences 
(open to the public) for the discussion of library topics, and 
publishing the conference papers and proceedings; attracting 
promising young men and women who have the necessary personal 
and educational qualifications, to library work as a profession. 

The Association is especially interested in promoting county 
libraries. It is prepared to supply exhibits, leaflets for distri- 
bution, pictures for reproduction in periodicals, slides for illus- 
trating county library talks and special advisory assistance in any 
county library problem. (See publications mentioned below). 

The Association is making a preliminary investigation of li- 
brary extension, to ascertain how many people in the United 
States lack library service and where they are; a report is to be 
issued in October, 1926. 

Method of Procedure——The Association gives advisory assist- 
ance by correspondence and in personal conference. It promotes 


164 HanpsBook oF Rurat SoctAL RESOURCES . 


library development through general library publicity. It always 
works through local and state library agencies where such agen- 
cies exist. It publishes pamphlets and books, which contain 
information on book selection and book buying; lists of chil- 
dren’s books on special subjects; lists of books in foreign lan- 
guages; various indexes, as for example, an index to kindergarten 
songs and an index to plays for children; a series of manuals of 
library economy; pamphlets on library establishment, buildings, 
and training; cataloging; children’s libraries; school libraries; 
mending and binding, etc. 

Much important work is done through active committees, in- 
cluding, for example, committees on legislation, federal and 
state relations, institutional libraries, work with the blind, work 
with the foreign born. Special investigations are being made 
in library training by the board of education for librarianship 
and in library service in adult education by the commission on 
the library and adult education; a comprehensive survey of li- 
braries of various types and sizes is under way. ‘The Associa- 
tion sponsors the work of the Paris Library School. 

Territory Covered.—The United States and Canada especially, 
but the Association has members in many foreign countries. 

How Individuals May Secure Services—By applying to the 
American Library Association, 86 East Randolph Street, Chi- 
cago, Ill. 

Publications.—Publications issued not for profit but in the 
interest of library progress, are available to rural communities 
and individuals: 

(2) Leaflets such as: (1) A County Library; (2) McCutch- 
eon Cartoon Poster and Bookmark; (3) A Shelf of Books for a 
One-Room School; (4) The Child and the Book; (5) What Is 
a Reasonable Income for Your Library? ‘These are sold or fur- 
nished for free distribution in small quantities when publicity 
literature is needed to stimulate local interest in library establish- 
ment or development. 

(2) More extensive studies; e.g. (1) Country Library Serv- 
ice, by Harriett C. Long; (2) Material and Plans for a County 


NationaL AGENCIES ENGAGED IN Ruraut SociaL Work 165 


Library Campaign, by Forrest B. Spaulding. These are sold at 
nominal prices. 

(c) A small collection of scrapbooks of press clippings, pic- 
tures, slides and other publicity material. 

O ficers—Secretary, Carl H. Milam, 86 East Randolph Street, 
Chicago, III. 

Headquarters Address ——86 East Randolph Street, Chicago, III. 


AMERICAN NATIONAL RED CROSS 


Organization.—The Red Cross in the United States was first 
incorporated in July, 1881, as the American National Association 
of the Red Cross, It is one of a confederation of fifty autono- 
mous national Red Cross societies, each recognized by its own 
government and the governments of nations which have societies. 
These were formed in accordance with the recommendations of 
the International Conference of Geneva of 1863, which were 
given to the world in the Treaty of Geneva adopted by a second 
conference in 1864. 

Purpose—The American National Red Cross is a volunteer 
society chartered by the Congress of the United States to repre- 
sent the American people in the performance of humanitarian 
services made necessary by wars, and by catastrophes and dis- 
eases that affict humanity in war and peace. 

The greater part of the strength and accomplishment of the 
American Red Cross in peace is in the territory outside the large 
cities. The activities of a majority of its more than 3,500 
chapters are in rural territory; particularly is this true of the 
work of those departments engaged in disaster relief, public 
health nursing, home service, volunteer service. 

’ Services Rendered.—A recent study showed that 1,798 of its 
chapters had jurisdiction in counties containing no town of 
8,000 or more population. In addition, many other chapters 
having towns of 8,000 or more in their territories are carrying 
on work in towns of less than 8,000 and in rural territory in 
the counties. A chapter with headquarters in a city or large 
town, may have a considerable program in rural territory. 


166 Hanppook oF RuraAt SociaL RESOURCES 


Services of the national organization are divided into the 
following: disaster relief, war relief, public health nursing, 
home hygiene and care of the sick, nutrition, life-saving, first 
aid, volunteer, the Junior Red Cross, An itinerant public health 
nursing service has now been established to meet the needs of 
chapters in rural territory unable to finance a full-time nursing 
service. 

Method of Procedure——The vice-chairman in charge of do- 
mestic operations, acting under the chairman’s authority, assists 
the chapters through a chapter service. By this chapter service, 
with a field service and chapter correspondence, close relations 
are maintained between the national organization and its local 
units, the chapters and branches. By personal visit and by letter 
the chapters are given advice and assistance in the conduct of 
their local operations. Chapter service, in turn, has available 
the experience of the trained men and women who are the na- 
tional directors of the Red Cross services. 

Territory Covered.—The entire United States. 

How Individuals May Secure Services—The American Red 
Cross is a membership organization, its ranks open to all adult 
Americans. Each year from Armistice Day to Thanksgiving it 
conducts its annual membership enrolment. During this “roll 
call” it invites every adult American to join the Red Cross, ‘The 
membership for 1925 was about 3,360,000. 

Publications——Local chapters in some instances have exhibits 
displaying work for local conferences, exhibitions and fairs. 
The national headquarters has material for sectional and regional 
events. 

The official publication of the American Red Cross is the Red 
Cross Courier, issued semi-monthly. The subscription price is 
$1.00 a year. The Junior Red Cross issues two publications 
monthly from September to May: The Junior Red Cross News 
(50 cents) for elementary schools and High School Service 
($1.00) for secondary schools. Various pamphlets are issued 
from time to time for free distribution. 

Other publications available include: Red Cross Course in Food 
Selection, 50 cents; Nutrition Bibliography, 25 cents; Outlines 


NatTionaL AGENCIES ENGAGED In Rurau SociaL Worx 167 


of Nine Talks to Teachers (Public Health Nursing) 35 cents; 
Handbook of Social Resources in the U. §., $1.00; First Aid 
Text Book—general edition, cloth 75 cents, paper 40 cents; 
industrial edition, 40 cents; women’s edition, 40 cents; railroad 
edition 40 cents; miner’s edition, 30 cents; foreign edition, 
30 cents; First Aid Relief Columns, $1.00; Home Hygiene 
and Care of the Sick Textbook, cloth $1.25, paper 70 cents; 
Rural School Nursing, 35 cents; The American Red Cross, Its 
Origin, Purposes and Service, 50 cents. 

O fficers—Secretary, Mabel T. Boardman; Vice-Chairman in 
Charge of Domestic Operations, James L. Fieser. 

Headquarters Address—Washington, D. C. 


BOARD OF HOME MISSIONS AND CHURCH EXTENSION OF THE 
METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH; DEPARTMENT OF RURAL WORK 


Organization.—The Department was authorized by the Gen- 
eral Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church in May, 
1916. ‘The work began in January, 1917. 

Purpose.—The purposes of the Department are stated in the 
legislation of the General Conference in the following terms: 
To encourage the organization of rural societies; to make surveys 
in rural church fields; to apportion home mission funds in the 
rural field for demonstration and other purposes; to promote the 
study of rural sociology among ministers, etc. 

Services Rendered.—The Department has organized and pro- 
moted forty-two rural minister’s associations. (In a few cases 
these organizations are called rural life commissions or rural life 
conferences.) In addition, the department has organized and 
promoted 101 rural district societies or associations in various sec- 
tions of the country. 

Special chairs of rural leadership are maintained in the theo- 
logical seminaries and the colleges of the denomination with the 
codperation of the Department of Rural Work. Several 
women workers are maintained to develop programs of chil- 
dren’s work and religious education in rural communities, 


168 HanpsBookx oF Ruraut SoctaL RESOURCES 


Method of Procedure-—The service of the Department to 
rural communities is carried out ultimately through the work 
of the local pastor. ‘The pastors are appointed by the district 
superintendents and bishops, who codperate with the Department 
in the selection of men especially equipped for the development 
of rural work. These men are placed in difficult rural charges 
with missionary support until such time as these can be brought 
to adequate self-support. The methods of work encouraged are 
dependent upon local conditions and needs, but include in a gen- 
eral way, a parish survey and the adoption of a program of com- 
munity service designed to meet the immediate and urgent needs 
of the community. In addition, the Department is encouraging 
interdenominational codperation for country programs of com- 
munity service. 

Territory Covered——The Department’s work covers all the 
territory of the United States, including Hawaii, Porto Rico and 
Alaska. 

How Individuals May Secure Services—The Department en- 
deavors to limit all grants for church extension or for home 
missionary aid to charges which are absolutely free from prob- 
lems of interdenominational competition and encourages the 
adjustment of relationships as a preliminary to recommending 
financial support. A small emergency fund is also available 
in cases of fire, flood, or unforeseen catastrophe. Literature and 
information with reference to the program of the Board of Home 
Missions and Church Extension may be secured on application 
made to the headquarters office. Applications for missionary or 
church extension aid must have the approval of the rural dis- 
trict society or conference board. 

Publications—T he Rural Evangel, a monthly magazine, is sent 
to ministers. | 

O fficers—Bishop Joseph F. Berry, President; David D. For- 
syth, Corresponding Secretary. Department of Rural Work: 
M. A. Dawber, Superintendent. 

Headquarters Address——1701 Arch Street, Philadelphia, Pa. 


NationaL AcENcIEs ENGAGED InN Rurau SociaL Worx 169 


BOARD OF NATIONAL MISSIONS, PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH IN THE 
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA; TOWN AND COUNTRY DEPARTMENT 


Organization.—The Board of Home Missions of the Presby- 
terian Church in the U. S. A. was organized in 1816. The 
Church and Country Life Work was begun in 1910. The 
Board of National Missions and the present department were 
organized in 1923. 

Purpose—To advise and assist synods, presbyteries and local 
churches of the denomination in their rural work programs. 

Services Rendered.—Evangelism, the location of resident pas- 
tors, the erection of manses, provision for adequate salaries, 
preparation of programs, extensive correspondence with min- 
isters and religious workers of all denominations, short course 
training for ministers and religious workers in the country (men 
and women), the administration of about fifty “demonstration 
_ parishes” in all parts of the country, the making and publishing 
of social surveys, publicity service. 

Method of Procedure-——The work is organized according to 
synods which correspond in general to states, and according to 
presbyteries which are local fellowships covering in each case 
from three to ten counties. The unit of work is the parish, 
with the pastor or other worker resident. 

Territory Covered—The boundaries of the United States, 
Alaska, Cuba, Porto Rico, and Santo Domingo. Under the 
Board of National Missions there are employed 1980 missionaries, 
five-sixths of whom are rural. The rural department is direct- 
ing work in over fifty communities and employs about ninety 
workers, 

O fficers—General Secretary of the Board, John A. Marquis. 
Director of Town and Country Department, Warren H. Wilson. 

Headquarters Address—156 Fifth Avenue, New York City. 


FEDERAL COUNCIL OF THE CHURCHES OF CHRIST IN AMERICA 


Organization.—The Federal Council of Churches was organ- 
ized in 1908. Rural work was begun in 1910. 


170 HanpBook OF RuRAL SociAL REsoURCES 


Pur pose.—The Council aims to codrdinate the work of twenty- 
eight codperating denominations in social service, race relations, 
international justice and goodwill, evangelism, research and 
education, etc. 

Services Rendered.—Through the organization of state coun- 
cils or federations of churches, the rural work of codperating de-., 
nominations is assisted and codrdinated. ‘The state councils doing 
most rural work are in Ohio, Massachusetts, Connecticut and 
Pennsylvania. Organizations are in process in other states. 
These federations or councils aim to adjust interchurch relations 
in rural communities. ‘They relate the church to other social 
agencies. ‘They also organize county councils or federations of 
churches. 

The Department of Research and Education maintains a rural 
research committee which assembles data on rural developments, 
answers inquiries and assembles bibliographies. 

The Council codperates with the Institute of Social and Reli- 
gious Research which is making surveys of social and religious 
conditions in the country. 

Method of Procedure—-The Council’s work is mainly done 
through codperating denominations, state and city federations 
or councils of churches and local churches and pastors. ‘The 
public is reached, however, through publicity, conferences, etc. 

Territory Covered.—The entire United States. 

How Individuals May Secure Services——On application to the 
Federal Council of Churches. 

Publications.—A list of publications is available on application. 
Those most directly related to some aspects of the work of the 
rural church are circulated by the Commissions on Social Serv- 
ice, Race Relations, International Justice and Goodwill and by 
the Department of Research and Education. 

The Information Service, issued weekly, contains data on 
rural developments and an annual review of rural life. A pam- 
phlet study entitled Social Aspects of Codperative Marketing 
has also been issued. 


Officers—S. Parkes Cadman, president; Charles S. Macfar- 


NatTionaL AGENCIES ENGAGED IN Rurat SocraL Work 171 


land and Samuel McCrea Cavert, general secretaries; Benson Y. 
Landis, secretary, Rural Committee of the Department of Re- 
search and Education. 


Headquarters Office —105 East 22nd Street, New York City. 


GIRL SCOUTS 


Organization.—The Girl Scouts was founded in the United 
States by Mrs. Juliette Low in 1912 and incorporated as a 
national organization in 1925. It is a development of the Girl 
Guide program formulated by Sir Robert Baden-Powell, founder 
of the Boy Scouts, to meet. the needs of girls. 

Purpose-—The purpose of this organization is to help girls 
to realize the ideals of womanhood as a preparation for their 
responsibilities in the home and in service to the community. 
It favors no creed, party or sect, but brings to all girls the 
opportunity for group experience, outdoor life and learning 
through work and play out of school hours to serve their com- 
munities, It teaches group responsibility, and that the real aim 
in life is to “play the game” for the good of all. 

Services Rendered.—For purposes of administration, the 
country has been divided into regions, each in charge of a di- 
rector of the national organization who has had organization 
training and experience. It is her duty to help in the organi- 
zation of new councils already organized when so desired, and to 
give training courses for Girl Scout leaders and council members. 

Method of Procedure—Membership in the Girl Scouts is 
not restricted by race, creed or color, and is open to any girl who 
expresses a desire to join and voluntarily accepts the Girl Scout 
Promise and Laws. ‘The membership, as of June 30th, 1925, 
was 122,313, including 14,787 Girl Scout leaders. During 
1924, 233 Local Councils registered, representing about 800 
communities. 

A troop committee, as its name implies, is a committee formed 
of from three to five older women (and men, if desired) to 
sponsor one particular troop and act in an advisory capacity to the 


172 Hanppook oF Rurat SociAL RESOURCES 


captain of the troop. Such committees are responsible to the 
local council or the community committee in all work under- 
taken by the troop it represents. In a community where girl 
scouting is new the troop committee may be the nucleus for 
the community committee and later the local council. The 
troop consisting of at least eight girls, is the local adminis- 
trative unit. 

Territory Covered.—Girl Scouts exist in every State in the 
Union, in Hawaii, Alaska, Panama and Porto Rico. The Girl 
Scouts are associated with the general movement of scouting 
which is organized in nearly all the civilized countries of the 
world, through the International Council of Scouts, which holds 
an annual meeting in some one of these countries. 

How Individuals May Secure Services—Any person desiring 
information about the Girl Scout movement or the organization 
of Girl Scout troops may secure it by writing directly to the 
National Headquarters. In a community where there is a local 
Girl Scout headquarters, the council there should be the medium 
of communication. 

Publication.—The official Handbook, Scouting for Girls, out- 
lines the technique of the program, and aims to treat com- 
prehensively, for Girl Scout purposes, such topics as home 
making, child nursing, home nursing, first aid, personal and 
public health, camping, gardening, nature study and map mak- 
ing. ‘There are profuse illustrations. At the present time this 
handbook is in process of revision. 

Among other Girl Scout publications are Campward Ho, a 
manual for camp directors; Girl Scout Song Book, The Ameri- 
can Girl, the official magazine for Girl Scouts; The Girl Scout 
Leader, a bulletin mailed each month with the exception of 
July and August, free of charge, to all leaders, and a variety 
of plays and pamphlets. A complete list may be secured by 
addressing the Girl Scout national headquarters, 

O fiicers—Mrs. Herbert Hoover, president; Mrs. Jane Deeter 
Rippin, director. 

Headquarters—670 Lexington Avenue, New York City. 


NATIONAL AGENCIES ENGAGED IN Rurat SocraL Worx 173 


HOME MISSIONS COUNCIL 


Organization.—Rural work of the Home Missions Council 
was begun in 1908. 

Purpose.-—The Home Missions Council is a national codpera- 
tive agency of forty mission boards, It aims to codrdinate the 
work of its constituent bodies in all home mission fields, includ- 
ing the rural work. 

Services Rendered.—Through the Town and Country Com- 
mittee, which has on it representatives of codperating agencies 
having organized rural home mission work, the Council renders 
the following services: Codperates in carrying out the special 
short course training for rural ministers held usually in six to 
eight colleges and state universities every summer; promotes a 
standard program of work in rural churches; secures codperation 
between existing home mission agencies and endeavors to elimi- 
nate competition; codperates with the Institute of Social and 
Religious Research which is making studies of rural church 
conditions; provides a meeting place for the directors of rural 
work of the codperating agencies. 

In California, Utah, Washington, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, 
Colorado, South Dakota, Kansas, North Dakota, Wisconsin and 
Minnesota, there are state Home Mission Councils which have 
done much to provide service for every community. They have 
also sought to lessen duplication and gross competition. A 
Council of workers with Spanish-speaking Americans and also 
an Oriental Missions Conference are doing constructive work in 
their respective groups. 

Method of Procedure-——The work of the Home Mission 
Council is done through codperating denominations, state organ- 
izations, local churches and pastors. 

Territory Covered.—The entire United States. In carrying 
on rural work the Home Missions Council is particularly con- 
cerned with those areas in America in which church policies 
are still largely administered by the aid of mission funds. 

How Individuals May Secure Services.—On application to the 
headquarters office. 


174 Hanppook oF RurRAL SoctaL REsoURCES 


Publications —A list of publications is available on request. 
O ficers—C. L. White, president; C. E. Vermilya, secretary. 
Headquarters Address —I156 Fifth Avenue, New York City. 


NATIONAL BOARD OF THE YOUNG WOMEN’S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIA- 
TIONS; RURAL COMMUNITIES DEPARTMENT 


Organization. 'The present Y. W. C. A. organization was 
formed in 1906. The movement had its beginning in Boston 
in 1866. ‘The National convention voted in 1909 that a county 
association of the Y. W. C. A. be an affiliable unit. In 1920 
it voted to make the district an affiliable unit. 

Purpose. The Y. W. C. A. has not developed with a fixed 
object in view. Its purpose has evolved and its activities multi- 
plied out of the growing desire among women for development 
of their powers and their increasing interest in the welfare of 
all other women. In 1912 the experience of the past and the 
promise of the future were expressed in the following statement 
of purpose, recommended to local Associations for use in their 
constitutions: “To associate young women in personal loyalty 
to Jesus Christ as Saviour and Lord; to promote growth in 
Christian character and service through physical, social, mental, 
and spiritual training, and to become a social force for the 
extension of the Kingdom of God.” 

Services Rendered. ‘The county or district association is the 
principal medium for rural work. This type of Y. W. C. A. 
organization has been evolved out of the effort to find an effec- 
tive way of making the methods and resources of the Y. W. C. A. 
available to rural people. ‘The county is sometimes the unit of 
organization. More often county lines are disregarded and a 
larger or smaller area is used as the unit. The county or dis- 
trict organization plan began in the idea of providing for 
financial codperation on the part of several rural communities 
in securing trained leadership. It has found added justifica- 
tion in the fact that this codperation between communities makes 
a larger number of contacts possible and produces spiritual values. 

The registered Girl Reserve Club plan, corresponding mem- 


NATIONAL AGENCIES ENGAGED IN Rurat SocraL Worx 175 


bership, student-rural leadership training, and the radio pro- 
grams, are especially designed to serve rural communities and 
medium sized towns. 

Method of Procedure. A distinctive product of the experi- 
ence of the Y. W. C. A. is its method of procedure. During 
its development, women of many nations, races, occupations, ages, 
and classes, have been included, and through their sharing of 
interests and experience, have come the Association’s finest re- 
sults in the development of the powers and understanding of 
individual girls and women and in helping women to play their 
part in building a Christian social order. It is this “method 
of association” which is the Y. W. C. A.’s best gift to rural 
life. ‘Through such activities as club programs, conferences, and 
camps, through meeting girls and women from other communi- 
ties, often from other races and nationalities, rural girls have 
an opportunity to live a fuller life, and to gain the understand- 
ing which will make them world citizens. 

Territory Covered. ‘There are 39 organizations in 105 coun- 
ties; 446 communities have a community Y. W. C. A. organ- 
ization. In the organized counties and districts there is a 
nonurban population of 4,776,199. The Y. W. C. A. members 
in this population number 13,188 adults and 21,102 minors. 
Girl Reserve Clubs which do not have intensive supervision 
are organized in 617 communities. The number of club mem- 
bers is 32,588, and the number of adult advisers 2,354. One- 
fourth of these clubs are in cities of over 5,000 population, 
though some of these are in high schools which have students 
from the rural districts. Of the communities in organized 
counties or districts reported as rural, about 10 per cent might 
be classed as suburban. In addition to the rural work reported 
above, nearly two hundred city and town associations are de- 
veloping work in the rural areas around them. 

How Individuals May Secure Services. By writing to the 
headquarters of the field in which they live. The address of 
each field office mav be obtained from the national headquarters. 

Officers. Mabel Cratty, General Secretary; Henrietta Roe- 
loffs, Executive of the Rural Communities Department. 


176 HanpBooK oF RuRAL SociAL REsouRCES 


Headquarters Address. 600 Lexington Avenue, New York 
City. 


NATIONAL CHILD LABOR COMMITTEE 


Organization. ‘The National Child Labor Committee was 
organized April 15, 1904, and incorporated by Act of Con- 
gress, February 21, 1907. It owes its origin to the coming 
together of several men and women who, in different parts of 
the country, had been aroused by what they had seen of child 
labor in some of its worst forms, and by the publication of 
census figures showing the great extent of the evil. 

Purpose. 1. 'To determine by means of accurate studies the 
extent and the causes of child labor in manufacturing and com- 
mercial industries and in agriculture. 2. To safeguard children 
against adverse conditions of labor in agriculture and industry. 
3. To codperate with all other interested agencies, organizations 
and institutions in the promotion of normal child development 
by increasing and enlarging the opportunities for education, for 
health and for recreation. 4. To assist in the fuller realization 
of these rights of childhood through better laws and through 
more enlightened practices on the part of government, industry 
and home. 5. To create and foster an intelligent public opinion 
which will support these aims. 

Services Rendered, Naturally, in carrying out the purposes 
for which it exists, the National Child Labor Committee has 
been led to a consideration of the effect of the employment of 
children in agriculture. While the whole agricultural field has 
not been covered by investigations, enough has been done to 
show that general farm work is a serious matter with many 
thousands of children. There can be no question but that many 
farmers and housewives are using their own children in farm 
work and housework in such a way as to place handicaps upon 
them for life. In later years, a new form of agriculture, 
namely, industrialized agriculture, has been developed in cer- 
tain sections of the country. ‘This form of agriculture is much 
more like that of factory work than general farming. The 
National Child Labor Committee has from time to time made 


NaTIoNAL AGENCIES ENGAGED IN Rurat SoctaL Work 177 


investigations as to the employment of children in this form 
of agriculture and has found that children are being used as 
work hands in a manner which it holds to be harmful. 

Method of Procedure. ‘The method which the Committee 
has used in relation to agricultural child labor is exactly the 
same as that used in other fields. ‘The Committee’s aim has 
been to make accurate and painstaking studies, to measure care- 
fully the exact effect of this form of child labor on the child 
himself, its effect upon children’s health, its effect upon their 
education. ‘The facts thus discovered have been published in 
order to educate the people of the country and stimulate them 
to legislative action. ‘The Committee maintains legislative 
workers throughout the states in which the legislatures are in 
session, who attend hearings and mobilize public opinion in 
every way possible. 

As to the means of accomplishing these things, the Com- 
mittee has excluded completely from the sphere of its legislative 
activities every phase of child labor on the farm. It is un- 
doubtedly true that abuses exist in this form of work but it is 
not held to be the Committee’s function, nor that of any 
federal or state labor department to remedy them. 

The Committee has occasionally broadened its activities in 
the rural field. At the request of local bodies and under local 
auspices, various intensive studies of child welfare have been 
carried on. ‘The problems of rural child welfare are entered 
into extensively here—those of rural recreation, health, poor 
relief, institutional care, etc. 

Territory Covered, ‘Vhe entire United States. 

How Individuals May Secure Services. On application to 
the Child Labor Committee. 

Publications and Exhibits, The Committee publishes The 
American Child monthly, and various pamphlets and reports. 
A list of these is available from the headquarters office. 

Officers. Samuel McCune Lindsay, Chairman; Wiley H. 
Swift, Acting General Secretary. 

Headquarters Address. 215 Fourth Avenue, New York City. 


178 Hanppook oF RuRAL SoctaL RESOURCES 


NATIONAL CATHOLIC WELFARE CONFERENCE; RURAL LIFE 
BUREAU OF THE SOCIAL ACTION DEPARTMENT 


Organization. "The National Catholic Welfare Conference 
has been organized by the Archbishops and the Bishops of the 
Catholic Church in the United States. The Rural Life Bureau 
was established in February, 1920. 

Purpose. ‘The purpose of the Rural Life Bureau is to serve 
Catholic dioceses, parishes, organizations and individuals with 
information and advice concerning rural economic and social 
work, ; 

Services Rendered. ‘The Bureau makes available to rural 
parishes methods and facilities for improving the work of the 
local parish. It has organized the National Catholic Rural Life 
Conference which has met annually since the first meeting in 
St. Louis in November, 1923. ‘This is a voluntary organization 
of Catholic clergy and laity for the promotion of rural welfare. 
This conference has a full-time executive secretary who also 
serves as editor of the conference publication Catholic Rural 
Life. 

The Catholic Rural Life Conference is interested in: pro- 
motion of the codperative movement; wider use of the facilities 
offered by the agricultural colleges; improved conveniences in 
the rural home; better rural education; better health facilities; 
boys’ and girls’ club work; religious education through vacation 
schools and religious correspondence courses. 

Method of Procedure. ‘The national organization has no 
funds or personnel for any local activities. It works through 
the parish which is the local unit in Catholic rural life work. 
The Diocesan Relations Committee of the Catholic Rural Life 
Conference now consists of representatives from forty dioceses. 

Territory Covered. ‘The United States. 

How Individuals May Secure Services. On application to the 
Bureau. 

Publications. Catholic Rural Life is published monthly at 
Des Moines, lowa, at $1.00 per year. 


NATIONAL AGENCIES ENGAGED In RurRaAt SocraL Worx 179 


Officers. Director of the Rural Life Bureau, Rev. E. T. 
O’Hara; Editor of Catholic Rural Life, Rev. M. B. Schiltz. 
Headquarters Address. Eugene, Oregon. 


NATIONAL CONGRESS OF MOTHERS AND PARENT-TEACHER ASSOCIA= 
TIONS; COUNTRY LIFE DEPARTMENT 


Organization. Washington, D. C., February, 1897, by Mrs. 
Theodore N. Birney and Mrs. Phoebe Hirst. 

Purpose, Child-welfare in home, school, church and state. 

Services Rendered, Organization of parent-teacher associa- 
tions in schools and churches; mothers’ clubs in communities; 
legislation for women and children; kindergarten extension; 
literature and loan papers; Americanization; rural welfare in 
home and school. 

The Country Life Department, directed by the national 
Chairman, assisting the state chairmen, adapts the work of any 
standing committee to rural needs. It is codperating closely with 
the United States Department of Agriculture and the Bureau 
of Education. Its present especial interests are the establishment 
of parent-teacher associations in all rural schools, and the im- 
provement of all rural conditions. 

Method of Procedure. National, state (and in most states, 
district and county) organizations, operate through parent- 
teacher associations and mothers’ clubs in schools and churches. 
Codperation with national and state departments of health, 
education and agriculture and with state universities. 

Territory Covered, ‘The United States, Hawaii and Alaska. 

How Individuais May Secure Services. Individuals or groups 
may apply to the state or national officers, for information, 
literature, and assistance in organization or in any phase of 
child-welfare work covered by the scope of the Congress. 

Publications. Literature on thrift, organization, programs, 
community work, etc., is available. 

Officers. Mrs, Arthur C. Watkins, Executive Secretary; Mrs. 
John B. Cleaver, Chairman Country Life Department. 


180 Hanppook oF RurRAut SociAL REsouRCES 


Headquarters Address, National Education Association Build- 
ing, 1201 16th St., Washington, D. C. 


NATIONAL COUNCIL OF THE YOUNG MEN’S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION 
TOWN AND COUNTRY DEPARTMENT 


Organization. 'The local Associations of the United States 
are bound together through the National Council, organized in 
1924, composed of about 350 men, representing various types 
of associations and different parts of the country. The National 
Council has general responsibility for the movement. State and 
inter-state associations are responsible for the development of 
national policies and programs within their area. 

Purpose. ‘The purpose of the association is best expressed by 
the definition of a voting member as one who (1) is a member 
of an evangelical church; or (2) subscribes in writing to the 
following: “I hereby declare my faith in God, and my accept- 
ance of Jesus Christ as Saviour and Lord. I desire to serve Him 
and to be His disciple in accordance with the teachings of the 
New ‘Testament, and to unite with others in the extension of 
the Kingdom of God. I am in full accord with the following 
purpose of the Young Men’s Christian Associations of the 
United States and of Canada and commit myself to its voluntary 
service and support: ‘To lead young men to faith in God 
through Jesus Christ; to promote their growth into fullness of 
Christian character; to lead them into active membership in 
the church of their choice; and to make the extension of the 
Kingdom of God throughout the world the governing purpose 
of their lives.” 

Services Rendered, ‘The program carried on usually includes: 

Group work for boys and young men, including Hi-Y Clubs, 
organized play, life work discussion lectures, talks, evangelism, 
hikes and expeditions, home duties, community service, a gen- 
eral use of the Christian citizenship program, agricultural 
projects, etc. 

Community events, including father and son gatherings, col- 


Y) 


NationaL AGENCIES ENGAGED In Rurat Soctau Work 181 


lege student deputations, county evangelism, discussion groups, 
find-yourself campaigns, thrift, play days, athletic tests, etc. 

State, county and district-wide events, such as older boys’ 
conferences, conventions, camps, etc. 

Coéperation with church, school, home, agricultural and social 
agencies, 

These activities are carried on by local volunteer leaders, who 
give unselfishly of their time and effort. Professional leaders, 
town and country secretaries, are also being trained in colleges 
and summer schools, One hundred seventy-four men are giv- 
ing their entire time to town and country service, but in addition 
to this number many state secretaries are giving their major 
attention to this field and there is a growing interest among city 
secretaries also. 

Method of Procedure. ‘The National Council and many of 
the state organizations have town and country departments which 
aim to carry to the towns, villages and rural communities the 
program, ideas and genius of the Association movement. ‘This 
is done in the main by the following methods of administration: 
(1) The county work plan, which organizes a county Associa- 
tion and enlists a county committee of citizens to direct its 
work and employs a county secretary, paid by volunteer gifts 
in the county. ‘This county Association organizes local com- 
mittees in communities and enlists local leaders who are respon- 
sible for carrying out the program of the Association. (2) The 
county branch Association, in which the city Association assumes 
definite responsibility for the town and country communities 
in its county or district. A branch association is organized, 
which functions throughout the county or district, in the same 
way as the county work plan above noted. There is an added 
value, however, in providing the facilities of city buildings and 
the service of city secretaries, for the activities of town and 
country boys and men. (3) Service by state committees—In 
many states, especially those having scattered town and eountry 
population, the state committees serve this field by codperating 
with the school and church in the organization of local groups, 
especially Hi-Y Clubs, which seek “to create, maintain and 


182 Hanppook oF RuraAt SoctaL REsouRCES 


extend throughout the school and community high standards of 
Christian character.” 

Territory Covered. ‘Town and country work of the Asso- 
ciation is intensively organized in 107 counties and in 1380 
communities. ‘There are 5,988 men serving on committees 
and 1,626 are giving at least one night a week to the leadership 
of organized groups. ‘The total membership is 37,476. Of this 
number about 25,000 are boys. Under the less intensive plan 
organized by state committees there are recorded 976 local high 
school groups in as many different communities, reaching 24,630 
boys. 

Officers. John R. Mott, General Secretary; ‘Town and Coun- 
try Department, Albert E. Roberts. 

Headquarters Address. 347 Madison Avenue, New York 
City. 


NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION; RURAL DEPARTMENT 


Organization. ‘The National Education Association was or- 
ganized in Philadelphia in 1857. ‘The Department of Rural 
Education had its beginnings in the various rural interests of 
the association but was officially organized at Chicago in Feb- 
ruary, 1919. It has held semi-annual meetings in February and 
July of each year. It is one of 21 departments of the National 
Education Association. 

Purpose. ‘The general purpose of the National Education 
Association is “‘to elevate the character and advance the interests 
of the profession of teaching and to promote the cause of edu- 
cation in the United States.’ The more specific purposes of 
the Department of Rural Education of the N. E. A. are to 
facilitate discussion of the problems of rural education, to 
make constructive studies and disseminate information in this 
field, to further the efforts and increase the efficiency of persons 
engaged in rural education service, and to correlate all rural 
activities of the N. E. A. proper and promote the general 
advancement of rural education and rural welfare throughout 
the United States. 


NATIONAL AGENCIES ENGAGED IN RuraAL SoctaL Work 183 


Services Rendered. ‘The rural department of the N. E. A., 
being a national organization, does not deal directly with local 
rural schools or communities. Its function is rather to stimulate 
general rural effort and render rural assistance to state and 
county educational leaders. To this end it holds two national 
conferences on rural education each year, has several standing 
committees at work conducting constructive studies in the field 
of rural education, issues annually a number of rural reports 
and papers through the printed Proceeding of the National 
Education Association, publishes a national Journal of Rural 
Education, and serves as a clearing house for the exchange of 
information looking toward the progress of rural education. As 
a department of the National Education Association, this division 
contributes an appreciable share also towards advancing the 
general platform and program of the Association. 

Territory Covered at Present. In a general way this organ- 
ization covers the entire United States since all the state super- 
intendents, practically all county superintendents and many rural 
teachers are included in its membership. Its territory can- 
not, however, be definitely defined by counties or geographic 
units. 

Officers. President, A. F. Harman; Secretary, Mabel Carney. 

Headquarters Address. National Education Association Build- 
ing, 1201 16th Street, Washington, D. C. | 


NATIONAL GRANGE OF THE PATRONS OF HUSBANDRY 


Organization, Organized as a fraternity at Washington, 
DMS Mel Oa. 

Purpose. 'To be a national farmer’s fraternity for fraternal, 
educational, social, and economic benefits to farmers. 

Services Rendered. Regular meetings, community service, 
educational, social, state and national legislative service. 

Method of Procedure. Usual form of fraternal organization, 
codperation with other organizations, counties, state and national 
legislative committees. | 


184 HaAnpsBookK oF RuRAL SociAL REsouURCES 


Territory Covered. Thirty-three states of the United States. 
There are approximately 8,000 subordinate and county Granges. 
These Granges average two meetings monthly. 

How Individuals May Secure Services. By becoming mem- 
bers of the order. 

Publications. National Grange Monthly and the several state 
publications. 

Officers. L. J. Taber, Master; C. M. Freeman, Secretary. 

Headquarters Address. 970 College Avenue, Columbus, Ohio. 


NATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR PUBLIC HEALTH NURSING 


Organization. Formed in 1912 by individuals interested in 
insuring to the public the best kind of public health nursing 
service. 

Purpose. ‘Yo stimulate and standardize the work of the public 
health nurses; to further codperation between public health nurses 
and all those interested in public health work. 

Services Rendered. ‘The Organization attempts to fit “the right 
nurse to the right work” by a vocational service used by both 
employers of nurses and nurses seeking positions; acts as the 
division of nursing of the American Child Health Association ; 
offers field service to state organizations, communities or organ- 
izations which want help on a particular problem; maintains a 
library which prepares bibliographies and reading lists; offers 
statistical information about public health nursing; offers help 
in the study of problems in the education of public health 
nurses; maintains a depository for credentials of nurses and gives 
a “personnel rating” to organizations employing nurses. 

Method and Procedure. The Organization does not admin- 
ister public health nursing. It is rather a service agency for 
those who do administer it. Its service is always indirect to both 
rural and urban communities. Rural organizations employing 
public health nurses are eligible for membership on the same 
terms as city organizations. 


Territory Covered. All parts of the United States. 


i tll 


Nationa, AcENcIEs ENGAGED In RurRau SociaL Work 185 


How Individuals May Secure Services. Nurses and associate 
nurses may become members and organizations employing nurses 
may become “corporate members.” 

Publications. A monthly magazine, The Public Health Nurse. 
Reprints of magazine articles, pamphlets and publicity material 
of value in public health nursing. Help is given in preparing 
publicity material to nurses who wish to interpret public health 
nursing. 

Officers. Anne A, Stevens, General Director; Theresa 
Kraker, Assistant Director. 

Headquarters Address, 370 Seventh Avenue, New York City. 


PLAYGROUND AND RECREATION ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA 


Organization. Organized in 1906. (Not incorporated.) 

Purpose. ‘To secure a wholesome amusement and recreation 
opportunity for young and old; to help cities, towns, rural and 
small communities to secure adequate year-round recreational 
opportunities, and to make the spare time of America count most 
for citizenship. 

Services Rendered, ‘The Playground and Recreation Associa- 
tion of America is helping in the rural recreation problem in 
several different ways; e.g., through the preparation and distri- 
bution of a special rural recreation handbook which contains 
information on rural play problems. ‘The Association is repre- 
sented at a number of rural conferences, in order to bring to 
these conferences what help the Association can give to those 
who are working on rural recreation in their home communities. 

Through the National Physical Educational Service which it 
maintains, the Association has helped a number of national or- 
ganizations to secure state laws requiring physical education in 
the schools of each state, which affects the outdoor play and 
physical life of many rural and. small town school children. 
This service has helped to secure legislation in 22 states, and 
where physical education is in operation it serves to give a free 
exchange of information between state physical education 


departments. 
Sot. d 


186 Hanpgpook oF RurRaL SoctAL RESOURCES 


National physical fitness tests have been worked out for the 
Association by committees and experts and are being widely used 
in rural districts. ‘Through these tests rural boys and girls are 
finding out whether or not they have attained the minimum 
physical standards for their age groups. 

Many special articles on rural recreation have been prepared 
by the Association and published in the rural magazines. From 
time to time the Association receives reports of rural recreation 
developments resulting from special articles in the monthly 
magazine of the Association. In some instances workers from 
rural districts have attended play institutions and schools con- 
ducted by the Association and then returned to their home 
communities better trained for the rural recreation programs 
which they wished to develop. 

The Association has helped in two counties to secure a full 
time recreation worker under the county commissioner whose 
time is devoted entirely to serving the small communities within 
these counties. 

Method of Procedure. Individuals and communities are 
served both directly and through local organizations. 

Territory Covered. Correspondence is received from prac- 
tically every state in the United States. Last year more than 
20,000 inquiries were received in the mails for help along 
dramatic, musical, social and physical recreation lines. 

Publications. A list of publications may be secured on 
request. 

Officers. Joseph Lee, President; Gustavus T. Kirby, Treas- 
urer; H. S. Braucher, Secretary. Correspondence and Consulta- 
tion Bureau, George D. Butler. 

Headquarters Address, 315 Fourth Avenue, New York City. 


RUSSELL SAGE FOUNDATION; DEPARTMENT OF RECREATION 


Organization. ‘The Russell Sage Foundation was established 
in 1907 and the work in recreation began the same year. 

Purpose. ‘The Russell Sage Foundation has for its object 
“the improvement of social and living conditions.” The De- 


NationaL AGENCIES ENGAGED IN Rurat SocraL Worx 187 


partment of Recreation seeks to aid in the realization of the 
above object by encouraging local action in providing means 
for the wholesome use of free time by both adults and children, 
and in promoting adequate physical training activities for all 
school children. 

Services Rendered. The major part of the Department’s 
work has been in cities but it is giving increased attention to 
the recreation and physical training problems of rural com- 
munities. It makes studies of typical local conditions, reports 
its findings, counsels with local groups and individuals through 
correspondence or personal conference. It acts as a bureau of 
information on local undertakings in the field of its work. ‘The 
subjects on which the Department of Recreation gives advice 
and information are: Equipment and Administration of Play- 
grounds; Games, Entertainments and Socials; Athletics and 
Sports; Physical Training and Gymnasium; Dancing; Dramatics, 
Pageants and Festivals; Story-Telling; Motion Pictures; Com- 
munity, Social and Civic Centers; Boys’ and Girls’? Organizations 
and Clubs; Camping; Home Recreations and Handicrafts; 
School and Home Gardens; Public Baths and Swimming Pools; 
Study Courses for Recreation and Community Center Leaders, 

Method of Procedure. ‘The procedure in the main has been 
described under the paragraph above entitled “Services Ren- 
dered.” ‘The Foundation does not support or supervise local 
social work of any character. 

Territory Covered. ‘The United States. 

How Individuals May Secure Services. On application to the 
Foundation. 

Publications. Some of the publications issued by the depart- 
ment that have a bearing on recreation in rural communities 
are: Recreation Legislation; Group Athletics for Boys; Group 
Athletics for Girls; Community Center Activities; Sources of 
Information on Play and Recreation; Motion Pictures for 
Schools, Churches, Clubs and Community Center. 

Officers. John M. Glenn, General Director; Lee Hanmer, 
Recreation Department. 


Headquarters Office. 130 East 22nd Street, New York City. 


188 Hanpgpook oF RurRaAL SociaL REsouURCES 


UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION; RURAL EDUCATION 
DIVISION 


Organization. In 1915 the rural work of the Bureau of 
Education was organized in the form of the Rural Education 
Division. 

Purpose. 'To promote the cause of rural education and to 
disseminate educational information of value to the public and 
to school officials engaged in rural education. 

Services Rendered. ‘The work of the division falls into three 
major lines of endeavor. Service in the field, including educa- 
tional surveys, research investigation, promoting the cause of 
education by conferences, publications, correspondence and gen- 
eral advisory service. 

Important among the special activities of the division and 
typical of the needs of rural education are: secondary education 
of farm children; centralization of small schools and districts; 
administrative reorganization for efficiency in control and sup- 
port; teachers’ needs and improvement in the field of teacher 
preparation; supervision of instruction. 

Territory Covered. ‘The entire United States. 

Publications. A list of publications is available from the 
Division. | 

Officers. John N. Tigert, Commissioner of Education; Mrs. 
Katherine M. Cook, Chief, Rural Education Division. 

Headquarters Address. Washington, D. C. 


UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE; DIVISION OF 
FARM POPULATION AND RURAL LIFE OF THE BUREAU 
OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS 


Organization. By the Secretary of Agriculture, June, 1919. 

Purposes. Research in farm population and in the conditions 
and standards of living of farmers in the United States. 

Services Rendered, Publicity of studies (made in different 
parts of the United States) through the channels of the office 
of extension work of the Department of Agriculture and of the 


NationaL AGENcIEs ENGAGED IN Rurat SociaL Work 189 


extension divisions of the Land-grant Colleges to rural com- 
munities. 

Method of Procedure. A request from a state college or uni- 
versity to the Bureau of Agricultural Economics results in a 
special agreement of codperation. Research projects on the 
problems of farmers are undertaken in codperation with colleges 
of agriculture, state universities and the like. 

Territory Covered. ‘The territory covered by these research 
projects is limited to the United States. 

How Individuals May Secure Services. Individuals or com- 
munities may secure the results arrived at by the Division on 
request, 

Publications, ‘The results of research studies are usually made 
available through bulletins. Certain exhibits have also been 
prepared. 

Officers. Dr. C. J. Galpin, in charge of Farm Population and 
Rural Life. 

Headquarters Address, Washington, D. C. 


UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE); EXTENSION 
SERVICE 


Organization. Codperative extension work in agriculture and 
home economics was authorized by the Smith-Lever Act, May 
8, 1914, and related federal and state legislation. This act 
provided funds to be matched for the most part from sources 
within the states, where they are to be administered through 
the agricultural colleges. 

Purpose. ‘The act defines the purpose of the work as follows: 
“Co6dperative agricultural extension work shall consist of the 
giving of instruction and practical demonstrations in agriculture 
and home economics to persons not attending or resident in said 
colleges in the several communities, and imparting to such per- 
sons information on said subjects through field. demonstrations, 
publications, and otherwise; and this work shall be carried on in 
such a manner as may be mutually agreed upon by the Secretary 


190 Hanpspook oF Rurat SoctaL RESOURCES 


of Agriculture and the state agricultural college or colleges 
receiving the benefits of this act.” 

Services Rendered, At present about 2,100 counties have 
agricultural agents (men), 900 counties have home demonstra- 
tion agents (women) and 170 counties have leaders of boys’ 
and girls’ clubs, working under the Extension Service. ‘There 
are also about 425 state leaders and assistants, usually with head- 
quarters at the agricultural colleges, who supervise and supple- 
ment the work of the county workers. 

The duties of the county agent are to bring to the farmers 
of his county on their own farms the results of scientific re- 
search by means of demonstrations which will influence farmers 
in putting them into practice. He gives instruction in farm 
management, purchasing and marketing. He also assists the 
economic and social forces working for the improvement of 
agriculture and country life. 

The county home demonstration agent codperates with women 
and girls and gives them instruction in topics relating to home- 
making, including income-yielding industries, food preservation, 
nutrition, clothing and textiles, personal hygiene and home sani- 
tation, housing, household management. Assistance is also given 
in community enterprises. 

The leader of boys’ and girls’ club work organizes clubs 
among boys and girls between the ages of 10 and 18. Club 
work consists of the performance of some practical work on the 
farm or in the home and in the keeping of records of this work. 
There are also numerous extension schools and the work of the 
state specialists supplements the services rendered by the county 
workers. 

Method of Procedure. ‘The Extension Service is that branch 
of the United States Department of Agriculture which repre- 
sents the Secretary of Agriculture in the administration and 
supervision of all codperative extension work in agriculture and 
home economics. ‘Through the office of codperative extension 
work, it gives direct financial aid in the employment of the 
county and home demonstration agents and boys’ and girls’ club 
leaders, supervises the distribution of funds appropriated by 


NaTIonNAL AGENCIES ENGAGED IN Rurat Soctau Worx 191 


the federal government, and codrdinates the work of the various 
bureaus and offices of the department with the work that is 
being carried on by the state colleges of agriculture. 

The codperative agreement between the Department of Agri- 
culture and the state colleges of agriculture provides that each 
college shall organize and maintain an administrative division 
for the management and conducting of extension work in agri- 
culture and home economics. At the head of this devision is 
a director selected by the college and acceptable to the depart- 
ment, who administers all the extension work in the state, and 
to whom the state agents and other extension workers at the 
college and in the counties are responsible. 

In order to make the work effective within the county, local 
organizations, such as farm bureaus, county councils, or county 
boards of agriculture, have been formed to codperate with the 
state colleges of agriculture and the United States Department 
of Agriculture in employing the county agricultural and home 
demonstration agents and in aiding them in carrying on their 
work, ‘These county organizations are chiefly composed of farm 
men and women. As a part of the organization, there are local 
clubs or committees who aid the agent in the different com- 
munities of the county. ‘The county agents also have helpful 
relations with a large number of farm organizations representing 
a great variety of agricultural interests and with various welfare 
organizations dealing with rural problems. 

Territory Covered. ‘The United States. 

How Individuals May Secure Services. Any person desiring 
the codperation of the state agricultural college in solving farm, 
home, rural, or community problems, should first make applica- 
tion to the county agricultural or home demonstration agent, if 
there is one; if there is no agent in the county, then to the 
director of extension at the state agricultural college. Counties 
desiring to organize for extension work should take the matter 
up with the state director of extension. 

Officers, C. W. Warburton, Director of Extension Work; 
C. B. Smith, Chief, Office of Codperative Extension Work; 


192 Hanppook oF Rurat SociaL REsourRcEs 


J. A. Evans, Assistant Chief, Office of Codperative Extension 
Work. 
Headquarters. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 


UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR; CHILDREN’S BUREAU 


Organization, By Act of Congress, approved April 9, 1912. 

Purpose. ‘To investigate and report to the Department upon 
all matters pertaining to the welfare of children and child life, 
and especially to investigate the questions of infant mortality, 
the birth rate, orphanages, juvenile courts, desertion, dangerous 
occupations, accidents and diseases of children, employment, and 
legislation affecting children in the several states and territories. 

Services Rendered. 1. Special studies: 

(a) Those primarily concerned with the health of children 
and mothers. These studies have been made in a number of 
rural communities, and have usually included health conferences 
conducted by a physician, assisted by a nurse and a clerk, and 
studies of home and community conditions affecting the health 
of the children and their mothers. 

(b) Those primarily concerned with conditions affecting the 
welfare of child workers in rural communities. In the course 
of a series of studies of this kind begun in 1920 and now 
being completed, detailed information on the work and school- 
ing and other factors affecting their development and welfare 
has been obtained for approximately 12,000 children under 
16 years of age in 14 states in different sections of the country. 
The most recent studies were made in Washington, Oregon and 
Illinois. 

(c) Those primarily concerned with dependency and delin- 
quency. Studies have been made of the local community and 
the child in need of special care, showing the extent of the 
problems of dependency, neglect, and delinquency, physical 
handicap and mental defect, present methods of dealing with 
these problems and possibilities for more adequate service. In 
1924, 30 counties of Georgia and 7 counties of Pennsylvania 
were studied, none of them containing cities of more than 


NaTionaL AGENCIES ENGAGED IN RurRat SoctaL Worx 193 


100,000 inhabitants. In order to ascertain the methods of 
organization and the results obtained in pioneer states in the 
development of county work, brief studies were made in 
selected counties of three states—New York, Minnesota, and 
North Carolina. 

2. State activities under the Maternity and Infancy Act. 
Although not limited to such communities, this Act was in- 
tended primarily to promote the welfare of mothers and babies 
in rural areas and small cities, and principal attention has been 
given to these communities by the states codperating. Forty-one 
states and Hawaii have accepted the provisions of the Act—all 
the states except Maine, Massachusetts, Vermont, Connecticut, 
Rhode Island, Kansas, and Illinois. State activities which have 
special reference to rural areas include the following: develop- 
ment and extension of facilities for reaching areas where no 
maternity and infancy work is done; extension of public health 
nursing service; consultation with doctors in remote districts by 
leading pediatricians and obstetricians of the states. Other 
activities include establishment of maternal and infant health 
centers; stimulation of better birth registration; improvement in 
milk supplies; studies of the midwife problem and supervision 
of midwives’ work; nutrition classes and conferences; general 
educational activities through literature, exhibits, lectures, dem- 
onstrations, mothers’ classes and correspondence courses. A 
colored doctor on the staff of the Federal Children’s Bureau is 
at present assisting the Tennessee Health Department in an 
investigation and educational campaign among colored midwives 
of the state. 

How Individuals May Secure Services. Studies are made in 
so far as available funds will permit, and are usually in response 
to requests by state commissions engaged in studying and re- 
vising children’s laws and other state or local organizations. 
Publications are distributed free as far as the printing fund 
permits, and exhibit material is loaned on condition of payment 
of transportation charges. So far as possible the Bureau endeavors 
to serve as a clearing bureau of information on child welfare 
subjects. 


194 Hanpgpook oF RurRaAuL SoctaAL RESOURCES 


Publications. A list of publications, exhibit material and 
lantern lectures is available on request. 

Officials of the Bureau. Chief, Grace Abbott; Assistant to 
the Chief, Katharine F. Lenroot. 

Headquarters Address. Department of Labor, Washing- 
ton, D. C. 


UNITED STATES PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE 


Organization. Organized by Acts of Congress of 1798 (as 
U. S. Marine Hospital Service, and 1912, as the U. S. Public 
Health Service). 

Purpose. (a) To prevent through quarantine and immigration 
inspection the introduction of communicable disease from for- 
eign countries into the United States. (b) To investigate the 
diseases of man and conditions relating to propagation and 
spread thereof and to issue publications for the information of 
the public about the findings of such investigations. (c) To 
prevent the spread of epidemic diseases between the states. 
(d) ‘To codperate with state and local governmental and civic 
agencies in the conduct of demonstration work for the preven- 
tion of disease and the promotion of health. (e) To render 
medical and surgical relief to sick and disabled seamen of the 
Merchant Marine Service, to beneficiaries of the War Risk In- 
surance act and to other groups of persons entitled under acts 
of Congress to such treatment. 

Services Rendered. ‘The special work of the Public Health 
Service in rural communities is conducted on a codperative basis 
with state and local health departments and with various civic 
agencies, for the establishment and maintenance for demonstra- 
tion purposes of adequate or improved local health service for 
counties or groups of townships. In these codperative demon- 
stration projects any and all branches of public health work 
may be taken up. Efforts are concentrated from time to time 
upon the different branches of health work which appear to 
offer the best prospects for satisfactory returns from an invest- 
ment of the funds available. 


NaTionaL AGENCIES ENGAGED IN RurRAL SocraL Work 195 


In some of the states, officers of the Public Health Service are 
detailed to work with state health departments in the study of 
rural health problems and in stimulating the development and 
maintenance of county health service. In the counties selected 
for demonstration the duly elected or appointed county health 
officers are given the status of field agents in the Public Health 
Service. Instead of a county, a group of townships in some in- 
stances is adopted as the unit for the demonstration project, 
but in such instances the district must be sufficient in area and 
population to enable whole time personnel to work to economic 
advantage. } 

Method of Procedure. In the average county in which a 
codperative project is being carried out the county force con- 
sists of a whole time health officer, an office clerk, one or more 
health nurses and one or more sanitary inspectors. Fifty per 
cent of the funds for the support of the work are usually fur- 
nished from official county sources. ‘The proportion furnished 
by the Public Health Service averages about 25 per cent. The 
remainder is usually furnished by the state health department 
or by various civic agencies. Monthly reports from the demon- 
stration projects are sent by the county health officers to the 
headquarters of each of the participating agencies. Inspection 
of the projects is made from time to time by field directors of 
the Public Health Service, by representatives of the state health 
department, or both. ‘The members of the working force are 
appointed or elected according to the requirements of county 
laws and regulations, but they must be, on account of their 
apparent or demonstrated qualifications, acceptable to all of the 
official participating agencies. The county health officer, as 
the head of the demonstration project, is expected to determine 
by his studies the health needs of the county and with advice 
and assistance from the inspecting officers of the Public Health 
Service and the state department to carry out an adequate 
program. 

Territory Covered. Seventy-nine counties or areas comparable 
to counties in 19 states. 

How Individuals May Secure Services. The codperation of 


196 HANDBOOK OF RuRAL SocIiAL RESOURCES 


the Public Health Service in rural health work is secured by 
requests from the proper county officials endorsed by the state 
health department. On account of the limited appropriation 
for codperative rural health work of the Public Health Service 
not all invitations from counties can be accepted. ‘Therefore 
in the selection of counties from which invitations have been 
received, consideration is given to both the needs of the situa- 
tion and the prospects for successful demonstration. In this 
respect consideration is given to the promises of support from 
civic organizations. 

Publications. Various publications and exhibits of the Public 
Health Service are available for distribution in the demonstra- 
tion projects. 

Headquarters Address. U.S. Public Health Service, Wash- 
ington, D. C. 


GENERAL INDEX 


Adams, Ralph S., 66 
Agricultural Bureau of _ the 
Chamber of Commerce of 
the United States, 47 
credits act, 1923, 96, 97 
legislation, national, 1921-25, 
94 
policies of European nations, 
143 
production, prices and income, 
1919-1925, 126 
agricultural 
since 1919, 128 
income from agricultural 
production, 136 
purchasing power of far- 
mer’s dollar and prod- 
ucts, 135 
price readjustment, the, 134 
rate of return on capital 
and management, 137 
reward for operator’s capi- 
tal and management, 139 
reward for farmer’s effort, 
141 
production since 1919, 128 
American Child Health Asso- 
ciation, 160 
Cotton Growers’ 
108 
Country Life Association, 56, 
153, 154, 156 
Farm Bureau Federation, 161 
American Girl, The, 172 
Home Economics Association, 
162 
Library Association, 163 


production 


Exchange, 


197 


American National Red Cross, 
50, 51, 165, junior, 166 
Sociological Society, 45, pub- 
lications, Vol. XIX, 3, 7 
American Society of Landscape 
Architects, 32 
Animals on farms, 130 
Annual report of the Rocke- 
feller Foundation, 1924, 
6 
Art, development of rural, 26 
art extension in Illinois, 31 
colleges of agriculture, 29 
dramatic, 27 
landscape background for 
American rural life, 31 
music, 33 
religious drama, 27 
Art of Helping People Out of 
Trouble, 49 
Arvold, Alfred, 9 


Balkan land reform, 149 

Baseball in rural communities, 
yy ie fr 

Bases of procedure in rural so- 
cial work, 58 

Battaglia del grano, 145 

Battle of wheat in Italy, 145 

Bean, L. H., 126 

“Behind the boom in Florida,” 
56 

Blackshear, Laura E., 30 

Borglum, Gutzon, 26 

Boy Scouts, 51 

British agricultural policy, 143, 
145 


198 


Brunner, Edmund de S., 66 
Bureau of Agricultural Eco- 
nomics, U. S. Dept. of 
Agriculture, 13, 70 
of dairying, 104 
of Education, United States, 
37, 40, 41, 188 
of Home Economics, U. S. 
Dept. of Agriculture, 13 
Burnham, Ernest, 37 
Butterfield, Kenyon L., 156, 159 
Butter standard act, 103 


California Fruit Growers’ Ex- 
change, 109 
Capper-Volstead act, 1922, 98, 
99 
Carolina folk plays, 27, 28 
playmakers, 27 
Carver, Thomas N., 46 
Catholic Church, the 
work of, 60 
early developments, 60 
policies, 62 
program of the National 
Catholic Welfare Confer- 
ence, 63 
rural Catholic education, 62 
Catholic Rural Life, 65, 178 
Rural Life Conference, 65 
Welfare Conference, Nation- 
al, Rural Life Bureau, 61, 
65, 178 
Census Analysis of American 
villages, 1, 9, 11, 12 
fourteenth, 2 
Chapin, Robert C., 23 
Child Health Association, Am- 
erican, 160 
Labor Committee, National, 
176 
Children’s Bureau, U. S. Dept. 
of Labor Bulletin, No. 
117, 52, 53 
work of the bureau, 192 


rural 


GENERAL INDEX 


Clark, Anna Mansfield, 26 
Mrs. Frances E., 34 
Commercial classification of 
cotton, the, 102 
Committee on rural social work 
of the American Country 
Life Association, 49 
Cooperation in the United 
States during the present 
decade, (1923), 107 
Cooperative Education Asso- 
ciation of Virginia, 57 
marketing movement, the, 
107 
accomplishments and limi- 
tations, 113 
extent of cooperative mar- 
keting, 107 
social aspects of coopera- 
tive marketing, 115 
types of cooperative or- 
ganizations, 108 
Cornell dramatic club, 28 
Cost of living and retail prices 
of food, 23, 25 
of living in the United States, 
Pa) BET UP de 
Cotton standards act, 1923, 101 
Country theater, the, 29 
the little, 27 
County Organization for Child 
Care and Protection, 52 
Social Service Leagues of 
Iowa, 57 
Credit, farm, 118 
Crop acreages in the United 
States, 128 
production in_ the 
States, 131 


United 


Dana, Malcolm W., 71 

de Schweinetz, Karl D., 49 

Dictionary of Tariff Informa- 
tion, 95 

Douglass, H. Paul, 51 


GENERAL INDEX 


Drummond, A. M., 29 
Eastern states exposition, the, 
33 


Education and training for so- 
cial work, 50 
Association, National, Rural 
Department, 182 
rural, 37 
government agencies, 44 
higher institutions, 42 
public school, 37 
research and publicity, 46 
voluntary organizations, 45 
Eisteddfod movement, 34 
English agricultural policy, 145 
European agricultural policies, 
143 
Extension Service, U. S. Dept. 
of Agriculture, 188 


Farm Bureau Federation, Amer- 


ican, 161 

credit and farm _ taxation, 
118 

population and rural life, 


Division in U. S. Dept. of 
Agriculture, 188 
population in selected coun- 
ties, 9 
taxation, 118 
women’s organizations, $5 
changes in form of organi- 
zation, 90 
early organizations, 85 
present-day conditions and 
organizations, 86 
trends in administration, 89 
trends in function, 91 
Federal Bureau of Education, 
37, 40, 41, 188 
Council of Churches, 30, 69, 
169 
farm loan system, 95, 119 
highways act, 1921, 104 


17 


Federal intermediate credit 
banks, 97, 120 
Reserve Board, 96 
“University For The People,” 
45 
Federation and consolidation of 
rural churches, 71 
Ferris, Emery N., 41 
Fletcher, Robert Samuel, 94 
Freight rate investigations, 105 
Fry, Ce Luthery1,) 93414) 12 
Frysinger, Grace E., 85 


Galpin Cin paes 
C. J., and Larson, Veda B., 

7 

Gillette, J. M., 2, 4, 5 

Girl Scouts, 171 

Grain futures act, 1922, 100 

Grange, National, of the Pa- 
trons of Husbandry, 183 


Hanmer, Lee F., 75 

Heironymus, R. E., 31 

Hobson, Asher, 143 

Hoey, Jane M., and others, 55 

Home Economics, American As- 
sociation, 162 

journal of, 162 

Home Missions Council, 173 

How Shall Country Youth Be 
Served? 51 


Income, agricultural, 136 
from agricultural production, 

136 

Information Service, 170 

Institute of Social and Religious 
Research, 69 

Interchurch World Movement, 
69 

Intermediate credit banks, fed- 
eral, 97, 120, 121 

Interrelation of the work of na- 
tional social agencies in 


200 


fourteen American com- 
munities, 55 . 

Iowa plan for organization of 
a county social service 
league, 57 

Israel, Henry, 159 

Italian agricultural 
145 


situation, 


Jesness, O. B., 112 
Joint Commission of Agricul- 
tural Inquiry, 95 
stock land banks, 120 
Journal of Home Economics, 
161 
Journal of Rural Education, 27 


Kester, Katherine, 29 
Kirkpatrick, E. L., 13 
Koch, Frederick H., 27 


Land Grant College Associa- 
tion, 43 
Landis, B. Y., 58, 107 
Land reform, 
Balkan, 149 
English, 146 
Larger parish plan, the, 71 
Larson, Veda B. and Galpin, 
Cot Jat 
League of Women Voters, 87 
Lee, Porter R., and others, 55 
Libraries, county, 164 
Library Association, American, 
163 
Lively, C. E., 1, 3 
Lloyd George, David, 147 
Lowell, James Russell, 26 


Macklin, Theodore, 113 
Meat animals slaughtered, 133 


Methodist Episcopal Depart- 
ment of Rural Work, 
167 


Miller, E. E., 113 


GENERAL INDEX 


Missionary Education Move- 
ment, 70 
Monmouth County (N._ J.) 

League for Social Serv- 
ice, 52 
Monthly Labor Review, 21, 23, 
25 
Morgan, Mrs. Rose, 35 
Morse, H. N., 66 
Muldoon, Rt. Rev. Peter J., 63 
Music at state fairs, 33 
at the fairs, 34 
“Mutual Improvement Asso- 
ciation” among farm 
women in Maryland, 85 
National agricultural legisla- 
tion, 1921-25, 94 
agricultural credit, 95 
butter standard act, 1923, 103 
Capper-Volstead act, 1922, 98 
cotton standards act, 1922, 
101 
establishment of dairy bureau, 
1924, 104 
federal highways act, 1921, 
104 
filled milk bill, 1923, 103 
freight rate investigations, 
1925, 105 
grain futures act, 1922, 100 
packers and stockyards act, 
1921, 100 
Purnell act, 1925, 105 
tariff acts of 1921 and 1922, 
95 
Amateur’ Athletic 
tion, 77, 78 
Board of the Y. W. C. A,, 
174 
Bureau for Advancement of 
Music, 35 
Catholic Welfare Conference, 
61, 65, 178 
Child Labor Committee, 176 


Federa- 


GENERAL INDEX 


National Conference on Out- 
door Recreation, 32 
Council of Agencies Engaged 

In Rural Social Work, 
56, 153, 155 
principles and plan of or- 
ganization, 157 
projects of the 
council, 158 
Council of the Y. M. C. A., 
179 
Education Association, Rural 
Department, 182 
Information Bureau, 55 
Music Week, 35 
Organization For Public 
Health Nursing, 184 


national 


O’Hara, E. V., 60 
Oklahoma Cotton Growers As- 
sociation, 110 
Organization of county and 
state memory contests, 34 
Organized rural recreation, 75 
baseball situation, 77 
formation of recreational 
organizations, 75 
training of play leaders, 76 
typical projects, 79 


Packers and 
1921, 100 

Palmer, A. W., 102 

Parent-teacher associations, 179 


stockyards act, 


Parent-Teacher Associations, 
National Congress. of 
Mothers and, Country 


Life Department, 179 
Patrons of Husbandry, Nation- 
al Grange of, 183 
Pettit, Walter W., and others, 

55 
“Play and the Farmer,” 29 
Playground and Recreation As- 
sociation, 36, 185 


201 


Pond, Bremer W., 32 
Population problems, 5 
rural, 1 
age distribution, 10 
definition, 1 
farm population in selected 
counties, 9 
increase and decrease, 2 
increase and. decrease in 
Ohio, 3, 4 
occupation, 11 
open country, 1 
race and nationality, 10 
sex proportions, 9 
Presbyterian Church in the U. 
S. A., Town and Country 
Department, 169 
Price, readjustment, 134 
Proceedings of the seventh 
country life conference, 
49 
Professional education, 39 
standards, 38 
Profession of social work, 50 
Protestant rural churches, the 
situation among, 66 
growth and _ decline of 
churches, 67 
membership, 67 
rural pastors, 67 
statistics of churches, 66 
Sunday schools, 67 
work of church organiza- 
tions, 68 
Public health nurse, 185 
Nursing, National Organiza- 
tion for, 184 
Service, United States, 194 
Purchasing power of farmer’s 
dollar and products, 135 
Purnell act, 1925, 105 


Ramsdell, Leroy A., 48 
Rate of return on farm capital 
and management, 137 


202 


Recreation, organized rural, 75 
Red Cross, American National, 
50, 354, 7h 09, 
junior, 166 
Religious Dramas, 1924, 30 
Report of the Commissioner of 
Labor, 18th Annual, 23 
Reuter, E. B., 5 
Reward for farmer’s effort, 141 
for farm operator’s capital 
and management, 139 
Ringland, Arthur, 32 
Roosevelt’s Country Life Com- 
mission, 68 
Rural America, 47, 155 
Rural Catholic school 
dance, 62 
Rural child labor, 176, 177 
church departments, 68 
demography, 5 
Evangel, The, 168 
Life Bureau, National Catho- 
lic Welfare Conference, 
61, 65, 178 
Sociology, Gillette, 2, 4, 5, 7 
Russell Sage Foundation, De- 
partment of Recreation, 
186 
Russian agricultural program, 
148 
Ryan, Lucy Chamberlain, 56 


atten- 


School of religious drama, 30 
support, 38 
Smith-Hughes law, 43 
Smith-Lever law, 44 
Social Aspects of Farmers’ Co- 
operative Marketing, 58, 
170 
Social Work, 50 
work, rural, 48 
availability of social work 
to rural communities, 50 
emerging problems, 54 
occupation of rural terri- 


GENERAL INDEX 


tory by national agencies, 
50 
problem of duplication, 54 
state and local agencies, 52 
support of social work, 57 
what is social work? 48 
Songs that live, 35 
Standard of living among work- 
ingmen’s families in New 
York City, 1909, 23 
Standards of living, farmers, 13 
classification of goods used, 
15 
composition of households 
and families, 14 
comparison of farm and in- 
dustrial families, 21 
distribution of values as an 
index of standards of liv- 
ing, 24 
family living purchased, 18 
how total value of family 
living is distributed, 20 
localities studied, 13 
studies of agricultural col- 
leges, 13 
total value of family liv- 
ing, 20 
value of family living fur- 
nished by the farm, 16 
variations in distribution of . 
values, 22 
State Charities Aid Association 
of New York, 50 
park movements, 33 
Steiner, Jesse, 58 
Survey Graphic, 9 
Switzerland, agricultural policy 
in, 144 


Tariff information, dictionary 
of, 95 

Taxation, farm, 118 

Taylor, Henry C., 116 

Thompson, W. C., 5, 6 


GENERAL INDEX 


Town And Country Church In 
The United States, The, 
66 

Tremaine, C. M., 35 


United States Bureau of Educa- 
tion, Rural Education 
Division, 37, 40, 41, 188 

United States Department of 
Agriculture, 13, 46, 70, 
188, 189 

United States Department of 
Labor, Children’s Bu- 
reau, 192 

United States Department of 
the Interior, 45 

United States Public 
Service, 194 

University Players, 27 

United States Tariff Commis- 
sion, 95 


Health 


203 


Victor Talking Machine Com- 
pany, 34 

Villages, Census Analysis of, 
159115112 

Vincent, George E., 6 


Wall, Norman J., 118 

War Finance Corporation, 96, 
120 

Waugh, Frank A., 31 

What is Social Work? 50 

Wilson, M. L., 116 

Wilson, Dr. Warren H., 68 

Women’s organizations, farm, 
85 


Yearbook of the United States 
Department of Agricul- 
ture, 1924, 98 

Y.M.C.A., 51, 56, 69, 180 

Y.W.C.A., 51, 56, 69, 174 


INDEX TO PART II 


THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF AGENCIES ENGAGED IN RURAL SOCIAL 
Work 


American Country Life Associa- 
tion, 153 

American Child Health Asso- 
ciation, 160 

American Farm Bureau Fed- 
eration, 161 

American Home Economics As- 
sociation, 162 

American Library Association, 
163 

American National Red Cross, 
165 


Board of Home Missions and 
Church Extension of the 
Methodist Episcopal 
Church; Department of 
Rural Work, 167 

Board of National Missions, 
Presbyterian Church of 
the U.S.A.; Town and 
Country Department, 169 


Federal Council of the Churches 
of Christ in America, 169 


Girl Scouts, 171 
Home Missions Council, 173 


National Board of the Young 
Women’s Christian Asso- 
ciation; Rural Communi- 
ties Department, 174 

National Child Labor Commit- 
tee, 176 


204 


Saito 


National Catholic Welfare Con- 
ference, 178 

National Congress of Mothers 
and Parent-Teacher As- 
sociation; Country Life 
Department, 179 

National Council of the Young 
Men’s Christian Associa- 
tion; County Work De- 
partment, 180 

National Education Association; 
Rural Education Depart- 
ment, 182 

National Grange, 183 

National Organization for Pub- 
lic Health Nursing, 184 


Playground and Recreation As- 
sociation of America, 185 


Russell Sage Foundation; Rec- 
reation Department, 186 


U. S. Bureau of Education; Ru- 
ral Education Division, 
188 

Department of Agricul- 
ture; Division of Farm 
Population and Rural 
Life, 188 

Department of Agricul- 
ture; Extension Service, 
189 

Department of Labor; 
Children’s Bureau, 192 
U. S. Public Health Service, 194 


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